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  The First Eye

  Putting a date on the first appearance of eyes depends on what one means by eye. If the term refers to a multicellular organ, even if it has just a few cells, then by definition, eyes could not form before there were multicellular animals. But many protists (animal-like, plantlike, or fungus-like unicellular organisms that require a water-based environment) can detect light by using aggregations of pigment molecules, and they use this information to modify their metabolic activity or motility (the ability to move spontaneously and independently). One of the familiar living examples, probably known to anyone who has taken a biology class, is the aquatic protozoan Euglena, which has an eyespot near its motile fIagellum (hairlike structure). Some living protists are very like their ancestral forms embedded in ancient sedimentary rocks, and this similarity suggests that the ability to detect light and modify behavior in response to light has been around for a very long time. Animals arose from one of such unicellular creatures, perhaps from one already specialized for a primitive kind of vision.

  An eye is a collection of cells that are specialized for light detection through the presence of photosensitive pigment as well as a means of restricting the direction of incoming light that will strike the photosensitive cells. This definition says nothing about image formation, lenses, eye movements, or any of the other features we associate with our own eyes, but it does recognize the simplest form of functional and anatomical specialisation namely, detection of light. Everything else can be built up from this simple beginning, and some animals appear to have had eyes almost from the beginning of the animal kingdom.

  Animals were scarce 600 million years ago in the geological era called the Precambrian. There are very few fossil remains from that time (though more keep turning up), and most evidence of the presence of animals is indirect, such as small tunnels in rock that could be ancient worm burrowings. But just 50 million years or so later, fossilized bits and pieces of animals abound, suggesting that a great burst of evolutionary creativity occurred in the 50-million-year interval. This surge of new life, marked by an abundance of animals, is called the Cambrian explosion.

  The first direct evidence for the early origin of eyes comes from fossils that are about 530 million years old, a time shortly after the Cambrian explosion; they were found on a mountainside in British Columbia in a deposit known as the Burgess Shale. The Burgess Shale fossils are extraordinarily important because among them are remains of soft-bodied creatures, many of them lacking shells and other hard parts that fossilize easily. Consequently, their preservation is little short of miraculous (as are the delicate methods used to reconstruct three-dimensional structure from these flattened fossils), and they are one of the few known repositories of early soft-bodied animals.

  Not all of the Burgess animals had eyes. However, some did. (Gross features location, size, and hemispheric shape are responsible for the designation of some structures as eyes). The reconstructed eyes of these Burgess animals look superficially like eyes of some living crustaceans, particularly those of shrimp and crabs whose eyes are mounted on stalks that improve the range of vision by raising the eyes above the surface of the head. The eyes of some Burgess organisms sat on stalks; those of others were on or a part of the body surface. One animal, Opabinia, had five eyes: two lateral pairs and a single medial eye; at least one of the lateral pairs had stalks that could have been movable. And some trilobite-like animals in the Burgess Shale had faceted eyes much like those of later fossil trilobites.

  Although the presence of eyes on some of the Burgess animals indicates that eyes have been around for a very long time, it is unlikely that these were the first eyes; they seem much too large and (potentially) well developed to be brand new inventions. The best we can do is put the origin of eyes somewhere between the beginning of the Cambrian explo sion, about 600 million years ago, and the death of the Burgess animals, some 530 million years ago.

  Paragraph 1: Putting a date on the first appearance of eyes depends on what one means by eye. If the term refers to a multicellular organ, even if it has just a few cells, then by definition, eyes could not form before there were multicellular animals. But many protists (animal-like, plantlike, or fungus-like unicellular organisms that require a water-based environment) can detect light by using aggregations of pigment molecules, and they use this information to modify their metabolic activity or motility (the ability to move spontaneously and independently). One of the familiar living examples, probably known to anyone who has taken a biology class, is the aquatic protozoan Euglena, which has an eyespot near its motile fIagellum (hairlike structure). Some living protists are very like their ancestral forms embedded in ancient sedimentary rocks, and this similarity suggests that the ability to detect light and modify behavior in response to light has been around for a very long time. Animals arose from one of such unicellular creatures, perhaps from one already specialized for a primitive kind of vision.

  1. The word “aggregations” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o Parts.

  o Reactions.

  o Groups.

  o Types.

  2. Paragraph 1 supports all of the following statements about protists EXCEPT:

  o Some are multicellular.

  o Some are able to move.

  o Some have pigment molecules.

  o They live in environments that contain moisture.

  3. According to paragraph 1, what have scientists concluded from the fact that some living protists are very like their ancestral forms

  o The eye did not evolve until multicellular organisms arose.

  o The ability to detect light and change behavior in response to light has existed for a long time.

  o The ancestral forms of these living protists likely had an eyespot near the motile flagellum.

  o The ancestral forms of these living protists depended primarily on light as the mechanism for modifying their metabolic activity or motility.

  Paragraph 2: An eye is a collection of cells that are specialized for light detection through the presence of photosensitive pigment as well as a means of restricting the direction of incoming light that will strike the photosensitive cells. This definition says nothing about image formation, lenses, eye movements, or any of the other features we associate with our own eyes, but it does recognize the simplest form of functional and anatomical specialisation namely, detection of light. Everything else can be built up from this simple beginning, and some animals appear to have had eyes almost from the beginning of the animal kingdom.

  4. Paragraph 2 implies which of the following about the early eyes

  o They were able to detect simple movements almost from the beginning of their evolution.

  o They were not as sensitive to light as once thought.

  o They could not form images.

  o Their cells had more photosensitive pigment than do human eyes

  Paragraph 3: Animals were scarce 600 million years ago in the geological era called the Precambrian. There are very few fossil remains from that time (though more keep turning up), and most evidence of the presence of animals is indirect, such as small tunnels in rock that could be ancient worm burrowings. But just 50 million years or so later, fossilized bits and pieces of animals abound, suggesting that a great burst of evolutionary creativity occurred in the 50-million-year interval. This surge of new life, marked by an abundance of animals, is called the Cambrian explosion.

  5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage. Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  o There are few fossils from the Precambrian, though more keep turning up.

  o Most evidence of animals in the fossil record is indirect and little of it is from the Precambrian.

  o Tunnels in Precambrian rocks that may have been made by worms provide indirect evidence of these animals existing at that time.

  o There are very few fossils of animals from the Precambrian and most evidence of animal life from that period is indirect.

  6. According to paragraph 3, the Cambrian period was characterized by

  o A great abundance of animals

  o A slow rate of animal extinction

  o The rapid fossilization of animals

  o An increase in the life span of some animals

  Paragraph 4: The first direct evidence for the early origin of eyes comes from fossils that are about 530 million years old, a time shortly after the Cambrian explosion; they were found on a mountainside in British Columbia in a deposit known as the Burgess Shale. The Burgess Shale fossils are extraordinarily important because among them are remains of soft-bodied creatures, many of them lacking shells and other hard parts that fossilize easily. Consequently, their preservation is little short of miraculous (as are the delicate methods used to reconstruct three-dimensional structure from these flattened fossils), and they are one of the few known repositories of early soft-bodied animals.

  7. The phrase little short of miraculous is closest in meaning

  o To very highly valued

  o Amazing because almost impossible

  o Causing controversy

  o Almost but not quite complete

  8. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of the Burgess Shale EXCEPT:

  o Its fossils were in a flattened condition when discovered.

  o Its fossils provide direct evidence about the origin of eyes.

  o It contains fossils of both Precambrian and Cambrian animals.

  o It contains fossilized remains of soft-bodied organisms.

  Paragraph 5: Not all of the Burgess animals had eyes. However, some did. (Gross features location, size, and hemispheric shape are responsible for the designation of some structures as eyes). The reconstructed eyes of these Burgess animals look superficially like eyes of some living crustaceans, particularly those of shrimp and crabs whose eyes are mounted on stalks that improve the range of vision by raising the eyes above the surface of the head. The eyes of some Burgess organisms sat on stalks; those of others were on or a part of the body surface. One animal, Opabinia, had five eyes: two lateral pairs and a single medial eye; at least one of the lateral pairs had stalks that could have been movable. And some trilobite-like animals in the Burgess Shale had faceted eyes much like those of later fossil trilobites.

  9. The word designation in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o Evolution

  o Identification

  o Reconstruction

  o Confusion

  10. The word lateral in the passage indicates a location at the

  o Front

  o Back

  o Top

  o Side

  11. Why does the author point out that The eyes of some Burgess organisms sat on stalks?

  o To suggest that some Burgess organisms had a greater range of vision than do living shrimp and crabs

  o To explain why it is thought that one of the lateral pairs of eyes in Opabinia may have been movable

  o To explain why the eyes of some Burgess animals were not recognizable as such before they were reconstructed

  o To support the statement that the reconstructed eyes of Burgess animals look superficially like the eyes of some living crustaceans

  Paragraph 6: Although the presence of eyes on some of the Burgess animals indicates that eyes have been around for a very long time, it is unlikely that these were the first eyes; they seem much too large and (potentially) well developed to be brand new inventions. The best we can do is put the origin of eyes somewhere between the beginning of the Cambrian explo sion, about 600 million years ago, and the death of the Burgess animals, some 530 million years ago.

  12. Paragraph 6 suggests that the first eyes probably

  o Came into existence long before 600 million years ago

  o Came into existence at a late point in the Cambrian period

  o Existed before the animals of the Burgess Shale existed

  o Were larger than those of animals found in the Burgess Shale

  Paragraph 1: Putting a date on the first appearance of eyes depends on what one means by eye. If the term refers to a multicellular organ, even if it has just a few cells, then by definition, eyes could not form before there were multicellular animals. ■But many protists (animal-like, plantlike, or fungus-like unicellular organisms that require a water-based environment) can detect light by using aggregations of pigment molecules, and they use this information to modify their metabolic activity or motility (the ability to move spontaneously and independently). ■One of the familiar living examples, probably known to anyone who has taken a biology class, is the aquatic protozoan Euglena, which has an eyespot near its motile fIagellum (hairlike structure). ■Some living protists are very like their ancestral forms embedded in ancient sedimentary rocks, and this similarity suggests that the ability to detect light and modify behavior in response to light has been around for a very long time. ■Animals arose from one of such unicellular creatures, perhaps from one already specialized for a primitive kind of vision.

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Molaria spinifera and H. Optata, both of which lived in water levels beyond the reach of light, fit into this category.

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View Text.

  Answer Choices

  o The ability of some unicellular organisms to detect light and change their behavior accordingly suggests that eyes did not originate with multicellular animals.

  o The earliest eyes apparently contained molecules that were capable of forming and focusing images.

  o Too few fossils from the Precambrian have been found to determine which if any Precambrian organisms had eyes.

  o Evidence from the Burgess Shale suggests that eyes of some early animals were similar to the eyes of living crustaceans.

  o Fossil evidence suggests that organisms in the Burgess Shale with faceted eyes developed later than organisms in the Burgess Shale with n onfaceted eyes.

  o The large size and possible complexity of the eyes of some organisms in the Burgess Shale suggest that their eyes were not the first eyes.

  The origin of Earth’s atmosphere

  In order to understand the origin of Earth's atmosphere, we must go back to the earliest days of the solar system, before the planets themselves were formed from a disk of rocky material spinning around the young Sun. This material gradually coalesced into lumps called planetesimals as gravity and chance smashed smaller pieces together, a chaotic and violent process that became more so as planetesimals grew in size and gravitational pull. Within each orbit, collisions between planetesimals generated immense heat and energy. How violent these processes were is suggested by the odd tilt and spin of many of the planets, which indicate that each of the planets was, like a billiard ball, struck at some stage by another large body of some kind. Visual evidence of these processes can be seen by looking at the Moon. Because the Moon has no atmosphere, its surface is not subject to erosion, so it retains the marks of its early history. Its face is deeply scarred by millions of meteoric impacts, as you can see on a clear night with a pair of binoculars. The early Earth did not have much of an atmosphere. Before it grew to full size, its gravitational pull was insufficient to prevent gases from drifting off into space, while the solar wind (the great stream of atomic particles emitted from the Sun) had already driven away much of the gaseous material from the inner orbits of the solar system. So we must imagine the early Earth as a mixture of rocky materials, metals, and trapped gases, subject to constant bombardment by smaller planetesimals and without much of an atmosphere.

  As it began to reach full size, Earth heated up, partly because of collisions with other planetesimals and partly because of increasing internal pressures as it grew in size. In addition, the early Earth contained abundant radioactive materials, also a source of heat. As Earth heated up, its interior melted. Within the molten interior, under the influence of gravity, different elements were sorted out by density. By about 40 million years after the formation of the solar system, most of the heavier metallic elements in the early Earth, such as iron and nickel, had sunk through the hot sludge to the center giving Earth a core dominated by iron. This metallic core gives Earth its characteristic magnetic field, which has played an extremely important role in the history of our planet.

  As heavy materials headed for the center of Earth, lighter silicates (such as the mineral quartz) drifted upward. The denser silicates formed Earth's mantle, a region almost 3,000 kilometers thick between the core and the crust. With the help of bombardment by comets, whose many impacts scarred and heated Earth's surface, the lightest silicates rose to Earth's surface, where they cooled more rapidly than the better- insulated materials in Earth's interior. These lighter materials, such as the rocks we call granites, formed a layer of continental crust about 35 kilometers thick. Relative to Earth as a whole, this is as thin as an eggshell. Seafloor crust is even thinner, at about 7 kilometers; thus, even continental crust reaches only about 1/200th of the way to Earth's core. Much of the early continental crust has remained on Earth's surface to the present day.

  The lightest materials of all, including gases such as hydrogen and helium, bubbled through Earth's interior to the surface. So we can imagine the surface of the early Earth as a massive volcanic field. And we can judge pretty well what gases bubbled up to that surface by analyzing the mixture of gases emitted by volcanoes. These include hydrogen, helium, methane, water vapor, nitrogen, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. Other materials, including large amounts of water vapor, were brought in by cometary bombardments. Much of the hydrogen and helium escaped; but once Earth was fully formed, it was large enough for its gravitational field to hold most of the remaining gases, and these formed Earth's first stable atmosphere.

  Paragraph 1: In order to understand the origin of Earth's atmosphere, we must go back to the earliest days of the solar system, before the planets themselves were formed from a disk of rocky material spinning around the young Sun. This material gradually coalesced into lumps called planetesimals as gravity and chance smashed smaller pieces together, a chaotic and violent process that became more so as planetesimals grew in size and gravitational pull. Within each orbit, collisions between planetesimals generated immense heat and energy. How violent these processes were is suggested by the odd tilt and spin of many of the planets, which indicate that each of the planets was, like a billiard ball, struck at some stage by another large body of some kind. Visual evidence of these processes can be seen by looking at the Moon. Because the Moon has no atmosphere, its surface is not subject to erosion, so it retains the marks of its early history. Its face is deeply scarred by millions of meteoric impacts, as you can see on a clear night with a pair of binoculars. The early Earth did not have much of an atmosphere. Before it grew to full size, its gravitational pull was insufficient to prevent gases from drifting off into space, while the solar wind (the great stream of atomic particles emitted from the Sun) had already driven away much of the gaseous material from the inner orbits of the solar system. So we must imagine the early Earth as a mixture of rocky materials, metals, and trapped gases, subject to constant bombardment by smaller planetesimals and without much of an atmosphere.

  1. The word coalesced in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o Collided

  o Joined

  o Changed

  o Shrank

  2. The word chaotic in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o Rapid

  o Disorganized

  o Intense

  o Long-lasting

  3. All of the following are true of the planetesimals mentioned in paragraph 1 EXCEPT:

  o They were formed of rocky material spinning around the early Sun.

  o They collided violently with each other.

  o They gradually grew in size.

  o They lost their atmospheres as they were hit by larger bodies.

  4. The word retains in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o Reveals

  o Acquires

  o Hides

  o Preserves

  5. The author discusses the Moon in paragraph 1 in order to

  o Help explain why Earth had fewer meteoric impacts than other planets in the solar system

  o Show why it is difficult to understand how the first planetary atmospheres developed

  o Help explain the processes that took place in the formation of large planetary bodies in the solar system

  o Illustrate why the Moon's spin and tilt are unique among other planetary bodies in the solar system

  6. The word constant in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o Considerable

  o Unpredictable

  o Continual

  o Violent

  Paragraph 2: As it began to reach full size, Earth heated up, partly because of collisions with other planetesimals and partly because of increasing internal pressures as it grew in size. In addition, the early Earth contained abundant radioactive materials, also a source of heat. As Earth heated up, its interior melted. Within the molten interior, under the influence of gravity, different elements were sorted out by density. By about 40 million years after the formation of the solar system, most of the heavier metallic elements in the early Earth, such as iron and nickel, had sunk through the hot sludge to the center giving Earth a core dominated by iron. This metallic core gives Earth its characteristic magnetic field, which has played an extremely important role in the history of our planet.

  7. Paragraph 2 answers which of the following questions about early Earth

  o What caused materials on Earth to become radioactive

  o What percentage of Earth's core was nickel

  o What internal pressures caused Earth to heat up as it grew in size

  o What caused Earth's magnetic field

  8. According to paragraph 2, Earth's core is mostly iron because, compared to most other elements on early Earth, iron

  o was denser

  o melted more easily

  o was more radioactive

  o was more plentiful

  Paragraph 3: As heavy materials headed for the center of Earth, lighter silicates (such as the mineral quartz) drifted upward. The denser silicates formed Earth's mantle, a region almost 3,000 kilometers thick between the core and the crust. With the help of bombardment by comets, whose many impacts scarred and heated Earth's surface, the lightest silicates rose to Earth's surface, where they cooled more rapidly than the better- insulated materials in Earth's interior. These lighter materials, such as the rocks we call granites, formed a layer of continental crust about 35 kilometers thick. Relative to Earth as a whole, this is as thin as an eggshell. Seafloor crust is even thinner, at about 7 kilometers; thus, even continental crust reaches only about 1/200th of the way to Earth's core. Much of the early continental crust has remained on Earth's surface to the present day.

  10. According to paragraph 3, Earth's continental crust

  o has changed significantly in composition over time

  o was as thick as Earth's mantle in its early stages

  o is very thin relative to Earth's size

  o caused the temperatures of Earth's early core and mantle to gradually increase

  Paragraph 4: The lightest materials of all, including gases such as hydrogen and helium, bubbled through Earth's interior to the surface. So we can imagine the surface of the early Earth as a massive volcanic field. And we can judge pretty well what gases bubbled up to that surface by analyzing the mixture of gases emitted by volcanoes. These include hydrogen, helium, methane, water vapor, nitrogen, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. Other materials, including large amounts of water vapor, were brought in by cometary bombardments. Much of the hydrogen and helium escaped; but once Earth was fully formed, it was large enough for its gravitational field to hold most of the remaining gases, and these formed Earth's first stable atmosphere.

  11. The word emitted in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o Released

  o Consumed

  o Contained

  o Heated

  12. What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about Earth's first stable atmosphere?

  o It existed before Earth was yet fully formed.

  o It contained very little hydrogen and helium.

  o It contained only materials that had bubbled up through Earth's surface.

  o It lacked water vapor.

  Paragraph 3: As heavy materials headed for the center of Earth, lighter silicates (such as the mineral quartz) drifted upward. The denser silicates formed Earth's mantle, a region almost 3,000 kilometers thick between the core and the crust. With the help of bombardment by comets, whose many impacts scarred and heated Earth's surface, the lightest silicates rose to Earth's surface, where they cooled more rapidly than the better-insulated materials in Earth's interior. ■These lighter materials, such as the rocks we call granites, formed a layer of continental crust about 35 kilometers thick. ■Relative to Earth as a whole, this is as thin as an eggshell. ■Seafloor crust is even thinner, at about 7 kilometers; thus, even continental crust reaches only about 1/200th of the way to Earth's core. Much of the early continental crust has remained on Earth's surface to the present day. ■

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Even some of its oldest portions as old as 3.8 billion years can still be found in parts of Canada, Australia, South Africa, and Greenland.

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This questions is worth 2 points.

  Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong.

  Answer Choices

  o Early Earth's lack of an atmosphere explains why it was bombarded with much more frequency and violence than other planetesimals.

  o Continued bombardments and internal pressures made the growing Earth hotter, causing its interior to melt and the heavier elements to sink and form Earth's core.

  o Lighter elements from Earth's interior rose and formed the mantle, a denser layer of silicates around the core, and the crust, a thinner layer of silicates at Earth's surface.

  o Early Earth's lack of an atmosphere explains why it was bombarded with much more frequency and violence than other planetesimals.

  o Continued bombardments and internal pressures made the growing Earth hotter, causing its interior to melt and the heavier elements to sink and form Earth's core.

  o Lighter elements from Earth's interior rose and formed the mantle, a denser layer of silicates around the core, and the crust, a thinner layer of silicates at Earth's surface.

  Energy and the industrial Revolution

  For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.

  In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain’s most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.

  The availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the transformation of the iron industry. Charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. Reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. The resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s Great Britain was producing more tons ofiron than the rest of the world combined. The developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever -widening use of higher -quality iron in other industries.

  Steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further implications. Improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel rails had long been used in mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the Industrial Revolution. As transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. Greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. Also, the availability of jobs in railway construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. When the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.

  Paragraph 1: For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.

  1. Why does the author provide the information that “Great Britain had large amounts of coal” ?

  o To reject the claim that Britain was facing an energy shortage in the eighteenth century

  o To explain why coal rather than other energy resources became the primary source of heat for homes and industries in eighteenth-century Britain

  o To indicate that Britain’s energy shortage was not the result of a lack of fuel

  o To explain why coal mining became an important industry in nineteenth-century

  2. What was “the problem of energy” that had to be solved to make the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century possible?

  o Water and wind could not be used efficiently.

  o There was no efficient way to power machinery.

  o Steam engines required large amounts of coal, which was in short supply.

  o Neither humans nor animals were strong enough to provide the power required for industrial application.

  Paragraph 2: In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain’s most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.

  3. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as development cotton mills brought about by Watt's steam engine?

  o The importing of huge quantities of raw cotton by Britain

  o Increased mechanization

  o More possibilities for mill location

  o Smaller mills

  4. The phrase “apparent in” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o clearly seen in

  o aided by

  o associated with

  o followed by

  5. According to paragraph 2, what was Britain’s most important export by 1850?

  o Raw cotton

  o Cotton cloth

  o Steam-powered pumps

  o Coal

  6. The word “consequent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o resulting

  o encouraging

  o well documented

  o immediate

  7. What is the role of paragraph 2 in the passage as a whole?

  o It explains how by increasing the supply of raw materials from other countries, British industries were able to reduce costs and increase production.

  o It explains how the production of mechanical energy and its benefits spread quickly across countries that were linked commercially with Great Britain.

  o It demonstrates why developments in a single industry could not have caused the Industrial Revolution.

  o It illustrates why historians have assigned great importance to the issue of energy in the rise of the Industrial Revolution.

  Paragraph 3: The availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the transformation of the iron industry. Charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. Reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. The resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s Great Britain was producing more tons ofiron than the rest of the world combined. The developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever -widening use of higher -quality iron in other industries.

  8. According to paragraph 3, why was the use of coke important for the iron industry?

  o It helped make wood into charcoal.

  o It reduced the dependency on steam-powered machines used for the production of iron.

  o It replaced charcoal in the production of raw and refined iron.

  o It powered the machines used to extract coal in coal mines.

  9. According to paragraph 3, all of the following were true of the iron industry in Great Britain during the 1800s EXCEPT:

  o Steam-driven bellows were used to produce raw iron.

  o By the 1850s Britain was the w o r l d’s largest producer of iron.

  o Steam-powered mills made it possible to produce iron of different shapes and sizes.

  o Greater demand for higher-quality iron increased its price.

  Paragraph 4: Steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further implications. Improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel rails had long been used in mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. ■However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the Industrial Revolution. ■As transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. ■Greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. ■Also, the availability of jobs in railway construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. When the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.

  10. The word “initiated” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o anticipated

  o accelerated

  o spread

  o started

  11. Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the transformation in rail transportation?

  o Because railway construction employed mostly rural laborers, unemployment increased among urban workers.

  o It resulted in more trade within the country, but less trade with markets that could be reached only by ocean shipping.

  o It made shipping freight overland to distant markets less expensive.

  o It resulted in higher wages for factory workers.

  12. The phrase "accustomed to" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  o in need of

  o used to

  o tired of

  o encouraged by

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  The first steam-powered locomotives were slow but they rapidly improved in speed and carrying capacity.

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong.

  Answer Choices

  o For years, historians disregarded the issue of energy as a major element in the rise of the Industrial Revolution and focused instead on technological developments and increased production.

  o The introduction and growth of steam-powered rail transport was a major factor in Britain's economic expansion during the Industrial Revolution.

  o An expansion of the Industrial Revolution outside Great Britain occurred when British industries began to import raw cotton and high-quality iron.

  o By 1850, the use of steam power in Britain's mills, mines, and iron industry made Britain a world leader in the production of cotton cloth and iron.

  o Since the basic infrastructure was in place, the Industrial Revolution fueled itself with enlarging markets requiring ever more expansion of factories and workforce.

  o By the end of the 1800s, railway construction attracted so many laborers that factories could not find enough workers to keep up with increasing sales.

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