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  Plant Colonization

  Colonization is one way in which plants canchange the ecology of a site. Colonization is aprocess with two components: invasion andsurvival. The rate at which a site is colonized byplants depends on both the rate at which individualorganisms (seeds, spores, immature or mature individuals) arrive at the site and their successat becoming established and surviving. Success in colonization depends to a great extent onthere being a site available for colonization—a safe site where disturbance by fire or bycutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competitionand other negative interactions to a level at which the invading species can becomeestablished. For a given rate of invasion, colonization of a moist, fertile site is likely to bemuch more rapid than that of a dry, infertile site because of poor survival on the latter. Afertile, plowed field is rapidly invaded by a large variety of weeds, whereas a neighboringconstruction site from which the soil has beencompacted or removed to expose a coarse,infertile parent material may remain virtually free of vegetation for many months or even yearsdespite receiving the same input of seeds as the plowed field.

  殖民化是植物能夠改變一個地方生態的一種方法。這是一個由兩部分組成的過程：入侵和生存。一個地方被植物殖民的比率是取決于兩個東西的速率：生物體 (種子，孢子，成熟或不成熟的個體) 到達這個區域和它們能成功地立足和生存。成功的殖民化取決于有一個非常適合定居的場所——所謂安全的地方就是，火災和砍伐的干擾已經趕走了競爭物種或已經減小了競爭力和對入侵物種要立足產生的阻力。對于入侵速率，遷居到一個潮濕肥沃的地方會比到一個干的，不肥沃的地方更快，因為在后者更難存活。一個肥沃，翻耕的領域會迅速地被大量多樣的野草侵入，然而一個鄰近的建筑區，為了曝光一個粗糙不肥沃的，并且幾乎可能是多月或多年都沒有植被覆蓋的母質層，它的土壤已經是被壓實或是移動，盡管是收到了如在翻耕區域相同的種子投入。

  Both the rate of invasion and the rate of extinction vary greatly among different plantspecies. Pioneer species—those that occur only in the earliest stages of colonization—tend tohave high rates of invasion because they produce very large numbers of reproductivepropagules (seeds, spores, and so on) and because they have an efficient means of dispersal(normally, wind).

  在不同的植物種類中，入侵率和滅絕率有很大的差別。先驅物種——只出現在殖民的最初階段——它們能高效的入侵，因為它們可以產生大量的生殖繁殖體 (像是種子，孢子之類) 并且它們有一種高效的傳播方式 (正常情況下，是風) 。

  If colonizers produce short-lived reproductive propagules, then they must produce verylarge numbers unless they have an efficient means of dispersal to suitable new habitats. Manyplants depend on wind for dispersal and produce abundant quantities of small, relativelyshort-lived seeds to compensate for the fact that wind is not always a reliable means ofreaching the appropriate type of habitat. Alternative strategies have evolved in some plants,such as those that produce fewer but larger seeds that are dispersed to suitable sites bybirds or small mammals or those that produce long-lived seeds. Many forest plants seem toexhibit the latter adaptation, and viable seeds of pioneer species can be found in largenumbers on some forest floors. For example, as many as 1,125 viable seeds per square meterwere found in a 100-year-old Douglas fir/western hemlock forest in coastal British Columbia.Nearly all the seeds that had germinated from this seed bank were from pioneer species. Therapid colonization ofsuch sites after disturbance is undoubtedly in part a reflection of thelarge seed bank on the forest floor.

  如果殖民植物產出的是壽命較短的生命繁殖體，之后它們就必須繁殖很大的數量，除非它們有一種高效的傳播方式去適應新的棲息地。很多植物依靠風去傳播并且產生大量的小且壽命相對較短的種子來抵消這樣一種風并不總是能可靠地到達一個適合的棲息地的事實。一些植物已經發展了可供選擇的策略，像那些能生產出通過鳥或小型哺乳動物帶到合適棲息地的較小卻更大的種子的植物，或是能生產出存活得更久的種子的植物。很多的森林植物偏于選擇第二種方法，并且大量先驅植物的可存活種子也能在森林地被物上被找到。舉個例子，在不列顛哥倫比亞沿海的道格拉斯西部鐵杉森林里，每一平方米都能找到 1125 個可生長的種子。幾乎所有在這個種子庫里發芽的種子都是屬于先驅植物。如這樣快速的在這種已被干擾的區域殖民毫無疑問是在部分反映出這個雨林地表的種子庫。

  【4】An adaptation that is well developed in colonizing species is a high degree of variationin germination (the beginning of a seed's growth). Seeds of a given species exhibit a widerange of germination dates, increasing the probability that at least some of the seeds willgerminate during a period of favorable environmental conditions. This is particularlyimportant for species that colonize an environment where there is no existing vegetation toameliorate climatic extremes and in which there may be great climatic diversity.

  這種在殖民物種里發展的很好的適應方法在萌芽期(種子成長初期)中存在很大程度的變化。一個特定物種的種子表現出一個較寬范圍的發芽期，這增加了至少有一部分種子會在有良好的環境條件時期發芽的可能性。這對于要遷居到沒有植被去改善極端氣候和已具備氣候多樣性的地方的物種尤其重要。

  Species succession in plant communities, i.e., the temporal sequence of appearanceand disappearance of species is dependent on events occurring at different stages in the lifehistory of a species. Variation in rates of invasion and growth plays an important role indetermining patterns of succession, especially secondary succession. The species that are firstto colonize a site are those that produce abundant seed that is distributed successfully tonew sites. Such species generally grow rapidly and quickly dominate new sites, excludingother species with lower invasion and growth rates. The first community that occupies adisturbed area therefore may be composed of species with the highest rate of invasion,whereas the community of the subsequent stage may consist of plants with similar survivalrates but lower invasion rates.

  植物群落里的物種演替，意思就是說，物種出現和消失的時間順序是依賴于在一個物種的生存史中發生在不同階段的事件。入侵和生長比率的變化在決定演替模式中扮演著一個重要角色，尤其是在次級演替中。首先遷居到別處的物種都可以產出大量能夠順利分散到新地點的種子。像這些物種，一般都能迅速的生長和控制新區域，將那些入侵及生長水平更低的其他物種排除在外。因此率先占據受兵家必爭之地的群落可能是由有著最高入侵性率的物種組成的，然而再后來階段的群落可能就由有著相似存活率較低入侵水平的植被組成了。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.According to paragraph 1, how doesdisturbance of a site influence its colonizationby a plant species?

  A.Disturbance reduces or eliminates competition byother species.

  B.Disturbance increases negative interactions with other organisms on the site.

  C.Disturbance prevents a plant species from colonizing a new site.

  D.Disturbance reduces the fertility of a site.

  1.第1段第4句話，通過火災和砍伐的干涉要么消除競爭對手要么降低競爭的強度。

  2.The word "virtually" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning to

  A.almost totally.

  B.unusually.

  C.consistently.

  D.unnaturally.

  2.virtually表示"實際上，幾乎", 程度上對應almost totally。

  3.Why does the author mention a plowed field and a construction site in the passage?

  A.To argue that sites that have been affected by human activity tend to be colonized slowly.

  B.To illustrate the kind of sites that may be invaded by weeds.

  C.To contrast sites in terms of their suitability for colonization.

  D.To explain that exposing or compacting the soil results in successful colonization.

  3.第一段第5、6句話，肥沃的土地植物入侵的速度快，反之亦然。

  4.The word "despite"(paragraph 1) in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.without.

  B.almost never.

  C.even though.

  D.perhaps.

  4.despite 盡管，對應even though 盡管/即使。

  5.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage (paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.The seeds of pioneer species are usually carried by the wind to fertile sites, where theyreproduce very efficiently.

  B.Pioneer species are successful invaders because they produce lots of seeds that aredispersed effectively.

  C.Pioneer species produce their largest numbers of propagules during the earliest stages oftheir colonization.

  D.Pioneer species reproduce very quickly and efficiently because they produce very largenumber of seeds.

  5.原句強調了先鋒物種入侵速度快的兩個原因，一是能夠產生大量可繁殖的種子，二是擁有有效的傳播途徑。原句和fertile sites沒有關系，A錯;C沒有提到種子的繁殖力; D沒有提到傳播途徑，只有B滿足原句的條件。

  6.What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the reason that large seeds aredispersed by birds or small animals rather than by wind?

  A.Large seeds are easier for birds and animals to see than are the small seeds dispersed by thewind.

  B.Large seeds are too heavy for the wind to disperse.

  C.Large seeds cannot be eaten by birds and animals.

  D.Large seeds are short-lived and thus require a more efficient means of dispersal than smallseeds do.

  6.第3段第2，3句：小種子通?？匡L傳播，大種子由鳥和動物實現傳播。

  7.The phrase "the latter adaptation" in the passage (paragraph 3) refers to

  A.producing fewer seeds.

  B.producing larger seeds.

  C.dispersal by birds and small mammals.

  D.producing long-lived seeds.

  7.the latter adaptation，后一種適應性，段落開頭講的是短命種子，所以后一種適應性是指長命種子。

  8.The word "viable" in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to

  A.able to survive.

  B.individual.

  C.large.

  D.remaining.

  8.viable，有生命力的，對應A。

  9.The example of the 100-year-old Douglas fir/western hemlock forest in paragraphto illustrates which of the following ideas?

  A.It is uncommon for older seed to germinate.

  B.Pioneer species tend to prefer forest floors for colonization purposes.

  C.Long-lived seeds of pioneer species can successfully germinate over long periods of time.

  D.Coastal British Columbia is particularly suited for pioneer species to develop.

  9.該例子的前一句話為觀點句, 例子是為了說明觀點，即長命種子在森林地面上很繁榮。

  10.According to paragraph 4, how do plants manage to germinate in areas with greatclimatic diversity and climatic extremes?

  A.By producing seeds only during favorable climatic conditions.

  B.By generating large numbers of seeds.

  C.By colonizing only those areas where other plants have survived.

  D.By producing seeds that have a wide range of germination dates.

  10.該段的第1句話，發芽時間的變化。

  11.The word "abundant〃 in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  A.new.

  B.improved.

  C.suitable.

  D.plentiful.

  11.abundant，表示"豐富的"，對應D。

  12.According to paragraph 5, which of the following determines the sequence inwhich plant species will colonize a site?

  A.The extent of growth of a species on a prior site before it begins to colonize a secondarysite.

  B.The differences in invasion and growth rates across species.

  C.The degree of fertility of a site.

  D.The kind of disturbance that the site has undergone.

  12.該段第二句話，succession 對應colonize a site。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where does the sentence best fit? They require relatively littleprotection or nutrients.

  Species succession in plant communities, i.e., the temporal sequence of appearance anddisappearance of species is dependent on events occurring at different stages in the lifehistory of a species.■【A】Variation in rates of invasion and growth plays an important role indetermining patterns of succession, especially secondary succession.■【B】The species that arefirst to colonize a site are those that produce abundant seed that is distributed successfullyto new sites.■【C】Such species generally grow rapidly and quickly dominate new sites,excluding other species with lower invasion and growth rates. The first community thatoccupies a disturbed area therefore may be composed of species with the highest rate ofinvasion, whereas the community of the subsequent stage may consist of plants with similarsurvival rates but lower invasion rates.■【D】

  13.they指代species. 原句說該物種的生存要求很低，就意味著他們更能存活，原句接下去可能闡述該物種如何靠著該優勢來侵占土地繁殖。

  14. Prose Summary

  The ecology of a site is changed through its colonization by new plants that arrive andgrow there.

  A.The species that first colonize a disturbed site are typically ones that produce a largenumber of efficiently dispersed seeds.

  B.Plants that cannot successfully compete with other species can invade and colonize a siteonly if it is fertile and moist, such as a plowed field.

  C.Pioneer species arrive at a site first but have lower survival rates than do species thatarrive later.

  D.Producing seeds that germinate at various times over long periods allows some plants tocolonize sites that only occasionally present the right conditions for growth.

  E.Large, long-lived seeds tend to result in large seed banks with short germination periodsrequiring favorable environmental conditions for development.

  F.The successive appearance and disappearance of species on a site is a result of variationin species' rates of invasion, growth, and survival.

  14.A選項: 對應第2段的核心意思，第2句話;

  B選項: 原文中沒有明確說明的信息;

  C選項: 違背原文意思，第三段最后一句;

  D選項: 對應第4段的核心意思;

  E選項: requiring favorable environmental conditions for development是原文中沒有明確說明的信息;

  F選項: 對應第5段的核心意思。

  Siam,1851-1910

  In the late nineteenth century, political andsocial changes were occurring rapidly in Siam (nowThailand). The old ruling families were beingdisplaced by an evolving centralized government.These families were pensioned off (given a sum ofmoney to live on) or simply had their revenues taken away or restricted; their sons wereenticed away to schools for district officers, later to be posted in some faraway province; andthe old patron-client relations that had bound together local societies simply disintegrated.Local rulers could no longer protect their relatives and attendants in legal cases, and with theending in 1905 of the practice of forcing peasant farmers to work part-time for local rulers, therulers no longer had a regular base for relations with rural populations. The old local rulingfamilies, then, were severed from their traditional social context.

  在后十九世紀，政治和機經的轉變很快出現在暹羅(現在的泰國)。同時老的家族正在被進化的中央集權的政府所取代。這些家庭被取消了撫恤金或僅僅拿走或限制他們的收入。他們的兒子被誘離學校成為新政權的人員，后來被告知去一些很遠的省，并且老的贊助商客戶關系和當地分解的社會有聯系。在一些法律案例中當地的統治者不能保護他們的親屬和侍從。在 1905 年底被強迫的農民的練習是為了給當地的統治者做兼職。統治者與農村的人們不再有正常的基本關系。當地的老的統治家族被斷絕和農村和他們傳統的社會環境。

  The same situation viewed from the perspective of the rural population is even morecomplex. According to the government's first census of the rural population, taken in 1905,there were about thirty thousand villages in Siam. This was probably a large increase over thefigure even two or three decades earlier, during the late 1800s. It is difficult to imagine it now,but Siam's Central Plain in the late 1800s was nowhere near as densely settled as it is today.There were still forests closely surrounding Bangkok into the last half of the nineteenth century,and even at century’s end there were wild elephants and tigers roaming the countryside only twenty or thirty miles away.

  同樣的情況從農村人口的角度來看則更為復雜。根據政府的第一次農村人口的人口普查,1905 年,在暹羅大約有三萬個村莊。這大量的增加可能出現在二三十年前，即 19 世紀末?，F在很難想象,但是暹羅的中部在 1800 年代末遠遠沒有像今天這么多人口定居。十九世紀下半葉，曼谷周圍還有大片的森林，甚至在世紀末的時候，距離鄉村二三十英里遠的地方還有野生的大象和老虎。

  Much population movement involved the opening up of new lands for rice cultivation.Two things made this possible and encouraged it to happen. First, the opening of the kingdomto the full force of international trade by the Bowring Treaty (1855) rapidly encouragedeconomic specialization in the growing of rice, mainly to feed the rice-deficient portions ofAsia (India and China in particular). The average annual volume of rice exported from Siamgrew from under 60 million kilograms per year in the late 1850s to more than 660 millionkilograms per year at the turn of the century; and over the same period the average price perkilogram doubled. During the same period, the area planted in rice increased from about230,000 acres to more than 350,000 acres. This growth was achieve as the result of thecollective decisions of thousands of peasants families to expand the amount of land theycultivated, clear and plant new land, or adopt more intensive methods of agriculture.

  許多人口運動包含了為了糧食耕種開發新土地。兩件事使得這變得有可能且促使其發生。首先，1855 年《鮑林條約》制定的王國對全面國際貿易的開放促進了種植大米的經濟專業化，這些大米主要供應給亞洲糧食缺乏的地區(尤其是印度和中國)。平均每年從 Siam 出口的糧食從十九世紀五十年代末的六千萬千克不到增長到該世紀末的六億六千萬多公斤;同樣期間平均價格翻了一番。與此同時糧食種植地從大約 230000 公頃增加到 350000 公頃。取得這樣的增長來自于農村人集體決定去擴張他們的耕地，清理并開墾新土地，或是采用更集中的農業模式.

  They were able to do so because of our second consideration. They were relatively freerthan they had been half a century earlier. Over the course of the Fifth Reign (1868-1910), theties that bound rural people to the aristocracy and local ruling elites were greatly reduced.Peasants now paid a tax on individuals instead of being required to render labor service to thegovernment. Under these conditions, it made good sense to thousands of peasant families to ineffect work full-time at what they had been able to do only part-time previously because of therequirement to work for the government: grow rice for the marketplace.

  他們有能力去做是第二原因。他們比半世紀前的時候更能加自由。因為十五世的統治將山區人民與貴族和當地統治者的關系斬斷了。農民現在支付個人的稅來替代為政府服務。在這些條件下制造了一個很好的理念給這些農民家庭全天去做以前他們只在閑暇時間做的農事，這是因為要為政府工作：種植大米給市場。

  Numerous changes accompanied these developments. The rural population bothdispersed and grew, and was probably less homogeneous and more mobile than it had beena generation earlier. The villages became more vulnerable to arbitrary treatment bygovernment bureaucrats as local elites now had less control over them. By the early twentiethcentury, as government modernization in a sense caught up with what had been happening inthe countryside since the 1870s, the government bureaucracy intruded more and more intovillage life. Provincial police began to appear, along with district officers and cattle registrationand land deeds and registration for compulsory military service. Village handicraftsdiminished or died out completely as people bought imported consumer goods, like cloth andtools, instead of making them themselves. More economic variation took shape in ruralvillages, as some grew prosperous from farming while others did not. As well as can bemeasured, rural standards of living improved in the Fifth Reign. But the statistical averagesmean little when measured against the harsh realities of peasant life.

  大量的改變伴隨著進步。農村人口散播開來并有所增長，同時與更早的一代人相比，他們更不均勻切具有更高的移動性。村莊變得更容易受到政府官員的專制對待，地方精英現在已經對他們的控制較少。到了二十世紀初，在農村由于政府現代化趕上了所發生的一切，因為 19 世紀 70 年代，從某種意義上說，政府官僚在鄉村生活侵入越來越多地。地方警察開始出現，連同地方人員和家畜注冊和土地和登記被強迫服務于軍事。村民的手工業減少或者完全滅絕讓人們帶來進口的產品，像衣服和工具，取代了他們自己做的東西。很多經濟變化在鄉村發生，比如一些其他種植的繁榮。農村的生活標準在十五世有所提高。但是在人們艱難的生活現狀中這個統計的平均值沒有很大意義。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.The word "severed" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning to

  A.cut off.

  B.viewed.

  C.protected.

  D.rescued.

  1.sever表示"分離，切開"， 對應cut off。

  2.According to paragraph 1, the situation for Siam's old ruling families changed in all of the following ways EXCEPT:

  A.Their incomes were reduced.

  B.Their sons were posted as district officers in distant provinces.

  C.They could sell lands that had traditionally belonged to them.

  D.They had less control over the rural populations.

  2.A選項對應該段第三句revenues taken away or restricted;

  B選項對應該段第三句 their sons were enticed away to schools for district office later to be posted in some faraway province;

  C選項原文中沒有提及;

  D選項對應該段倒數第二句。

  3.According to paragraph 2, which of the following was true of Siam in 1905?

  A.Its urban population began to migrate out of the cities and into the country.

  B.Its Central Plain was almost as densely populated as it is today.

  C.It was so rural that wild elephants and tigers sometimes roamed Bangkok.

  D.It had many more villages than it did in the late 1800s.

  3.該段第2，3句;1905年有3萬人比起18世紀晚期有很大的增長。

  4.The phrase "rice-deficient portions" in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to

  A.the parts that consume rice.

  B.the parts that do not have enough rice.

  C.the parts where rice is grown.

  D.the parts that depend primarily on rice.

  4.rice-deficient 缺乏大米，對應do not have enough rice。

  5.Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as signs of economic growth in Siam EXCEPT

  A.an increase in the price of rice.

  B.an increase in the amount of rice leaving Siam.

  C.an increase in the nutritional quality of the rice grown.

  D.an increase in the amount of land used for rice production.

  5.A選項對應the average price per kilogram doubled;

  B選項對應該段第4句話;

  C選項原文中沒有提及;

  D選項對應該段的最后一句。

  6.According to paragraph 3, farming families increased the amount of rice they grew in part by

  A.growing varieties of rice that produced greater yields.

  B.forming collective farms by joining together with other farm families.

  C.planting rice in areas that had previously remained unplanted.

  D.hiring laborers to help them tend their fields.

  6.該段的最后一句plant new land。

  7.According to paragraph 4, what happened after the government ended the practice of requiring rural people to perform labor for it?

  A.Rural people became more closely connected to the aristocracy.

  B.Rural people spent more time growing rice for profit.

  C.The government began to pay the laborers who grew rice for it.

  D.The government introduced a special tax on rice.

  7.該段最后一句：it made good sense to thousands of peasant families to in effect work full-time, grow rice for the marketplace.

  8.Which of the following best describes the relationship between paragraphs 3 and 4 in the passage?

  A.Paragraph 4 provides further evidence of the economic growth of Siam discussed in paragraph 3.B.Paragraph 4 continues the discussion begun in paragraph 3 of farming improvements that led to economic growth.

  C.Paragraph 4 examines a particular effect of the Bowring Treaty mentioned in paragraph 3.D.Paragraph 4 discusses the second of two factors that contributed to the expansion of rice farming mentioned in paragraph 3.

  8.解釋 第3段提到了2個因素中的第一個,出口大米; 第4段第一句話表明要討論第二個因素

  9.The word "dispersed" in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  A.spread out.

  B.gained power.

  C.adapted.

  D.specialized.

  9.disperse表示"散開，驅散"，對應 spread out 傳播，散布。

  10.The word "compulsory" in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  A.foreign.

  B.formal.

  C.required.

  D.preferred.

  10.compulsory 義務的，強制性的，對應required 必修的，必須的。

  11.According to paragraph 5, which of the following was true of Siam's rural people during the Fifth Reign?

  A.They were forced to spend most of the profits from rice growing on registrations required by the government.

  B.Their lives remained very difficult even though statistics suggest that their quality of life improved.

  C.The non-farmers among them were helped by the government more than the farmers among them were.

  D.They were more prosperous when they were ruled by local elites than when they were ruled by the more modern government of the Fifth Reign.

  11.該段最后一句：統計數據不能說明什么，農民依然活在水深火熱之中。

  12.According to paragraph 5, the government bureaucracy intruded in village life by

  A.requiring the people to register their cattle and land.

  B.requiring the people to buy certain kinds of imported goods.

  C.discouraging the people from making handicrafts and tools.

  D.encouraging more people to take up farming.

  12.請查看該段第5句。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where does the sentence best fit? And yet, how is it that the peasants were able to choose to expand their economic activity in response to the market opportunities?

  ■【A】They were able to do so because of our second consideration.■【B】They were relatively freer than they had been half a century earlier.■【C】Over the course of the Fifth Reign (1868-1910), the ties that bound rural people to the aristocracy and local ruling elites were greatly reduced. Peasants now paid a tax on individuals instead of being required to render labor service to the government.■【D】Under these conditions, it made good sense to thousands of peasant families to in effect work full-time at what they had been able to do only part-time previously because of the requirement to work for the government: grow rice for the marketplace.

  13.該段第一句do so表示前面必有指代，because表示原因，對應了how。

  14. Prose Summary

  During the late nineteenth century, changes in Siam's power structure had important economic consequences.

  A.Population movement occurred and rice cultivation intensified because Siam became more actively involved in international trade.

  B.Changes in taxation and the ending of the requirement that people work part-time for the rulers allowed farmers to produce more rice for the marketplace.

  C.Population increases occurred in part because Siam's farmers were able to produce more rice to feed the population.

  D.Land became so valuable that villagers had to pay the government for the land that they worked on.

  E.Although rural living standards may have improved somewhat, prosperity varied from village to village and government bureaucracy played a greater role in village life.

  F.Government modernization in the early twentieth century resulted in the loss of some freedoms that the rural population had gained from the traditional ruling classes.

  14.A選項對應第3段核心意思;

  B選項對應第4段核心意思;

  C選項原文中沒有明確說明;

  D選項原文中沒有明確說明;

  E選項對應第5段核心意思;

  F選項對應第5段但原文中沒有提到loss of freedoms的概念。

  Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies

  In 1977 ecologists Stephen Hubbell and Leslie Johnson recorded a dramatic example of how social interactions can produce and enforce regular spacing in a population. They studied competition and nest spacing in populations of stingless bees in tropical dry forests in Costa Rica. Though these bees do no sting, rival colonies of some species fight fiercely over potential nesting sites.

  1977 年生態學家 SH 和 LJ 記錄了一個例子關于社會聯系怎么產生和加強人口中的規律性間隔。他們研究競爭和 CR 熱帶干旱深林的無刺蜜蜂的人口巢穴間隔。雖然這些蜜蜂不蟄人，但是一些與之競爭的物種往往在潛在的棲息地大打出手。

  Stingless bees are abundant in tropical and subtropical environments, where they gather nectar and pollen from a wide variety of flowers. They generally nest in trees and live in colonies made up of hundreds to thousands of workers. Hubbell and Johnson observed that some species of stingless bees are highly aggressive to members of their species from other colonies, while other species are not. Aggressive species usually forage in groups and feed mainly on flowers that occur in high-density clumps. Nonaggressive species feed singly or in small groups and on more widely distributed flowers.

  無刺蜜蜂廣泛分布于熱帶和亞熱帶環境，他們在此地收集多種花蜜和花粉。他們逐漸地棲息在樹上和由成千上萬的工蜂組成的群體。H 和 J 觀察到一些無刺的蜜蜂對于其他種群的蜜蜂有較強的攻擊性，而其他的種群沒有該特性。侵略性的物種常常群體覓食且主要食用高濃度塊狀花蜜。而非侵略性的蜜蜂則單獨或小團體覓食且食用更廣泛分布的花。

  Hubbell and Johnson studied several species of stingless bees to determine whether there is a relationship between aggressiveness and patterns of colony distribution. They predicted that the colonies of aggressive species would show regular distributions, while those of nonaggressive species would show random or closely grouped (clumped)distribution. They concentrated their studies on a thirteen-hectare tract of tropical dry forest that contained numerous nests of nine species of stingless bees.

  H 和 B 研究一些種類的無刺蜜蜂去決定是否在侵略性和群體分配模式上有聯系。他們預測侵略性物種會有規律性的非配而非侵略性的物種會隨機或是集群分配。他們把他們的研究集中于 13 熱帶干燥森林公頃的土地，這塊地上包括多個九種無刺的蜜蜂的巢穴.

  Though Hubbell and Johnson were interested in how bee behavior might affect colony distributions, they recognized that the availability of potential nest sites for colonies could also affect distributions. So as one of the first steps in their study, they mapped the distributions of trees suitable for nesting. ￠ They found that potential nest trees were distributed randomly through the study area. ￠ They also found that the number of potential nest sites was much greater than the number of bee colonies.

  然而 Hubbell 和 Johnson 對蜜蜂的行為如何影響殖民地的分布感興趣，他們意識到潛在可筑巢樹的可得性也影響分布。因此作為他們研究的第一步，他們繪出了適合筑巢的樹的分布地圖。他們也發現潛在的筑巢的樹是胡亂地分布在他們的研究區域。他們也發現潛在的可筑巢樹的數量遠遠大于蜂群的數量。

  What did these measurements show the researchers? The number of colonies in the study area was not limited by availability of suitable trees, and a clumped or regular distribution of colonies was not due to an underlying clumped or regular distribution of potential nest sites.

  這些測量值向研究員表面了什么?蜂群的數量不是被適宜樹的可得性所限制并且成群的或有規律的蜂群分布不是由于潛在的大量的或有規律的適宜筑巢樹的分布。

  Hubbell and Johnson mapped the nests of five of the nine species of stingless bees accurately, and the nests of four of these species were distributed regularly. All four species with regular nest distributions were highly aggressive to bees from other colonies of their own species. The fifth species was not aggressive, and its nests were randomly distributed over the study area.

  Hubbell 和 Johnson 準確地繪制了 9 個無刺蜜蜂種群的 5 個巢的地圖，并且 4 個這種種群的巢是規律的分布。4 個有著這種有規律巢的分布的種群都是對相同種群來自不同蜂群具有高度攻擊性的。第 5 種種群是沒有攻擊性的，并且他們的巢都胡亂地分布在研究區域中的.

  The researchers also studied the process by which the aggressive species establish new colonies. Their observations provide insights into the mechanisms that establish and maintain the regular nest distribution of these species. Aggressive species apparently mark prospective nest sites with pheromones, chemical substances secreted by some animals for communication with other members of their species. The pheromone secreted by these stingless bees attracts and aggregates members of their colony to the prospective nest site; however, it also attracts workers from other nests.

  研究者們同樣研究具有攻擊性物種建立新殖民地的過程。他們的觀察提供了對那個建立和維持這些物種有規律的巢穴侵略的機制的理解。 這些具有攻擊性的物種更喜歡用信息素去標記那些有發展前景的巢穴，這種信息素是一些動物分泌的為了與同種物種不同成員之間交流的化學物質。 這些被無刺的蜜蜂分泌的信息素吸引著并且聚集他們“殖民軍”中的其他成員到那些有發展遠景的巢穴上。 然而，他們也吸引了來自其他巢穴的工蜂。

  If workers from two different colonies arrive at the prospective nest at the same time, they may fight for possession. Fights may be escalated into protracted battles. The researchers observed battles over a nest tree that lasted for two weeks. Each dawn, fifteen to thirty workers from two competing colonies arrived at the contested nest site. The workers from the two colonies faced off in two swarms and displayed and fought with each other. In the displays, pairs of bees faced each other, slowly flew vertically to a height of about three meters, and then grappled each other to the ground. When the two bees hit the ground,they separated, faced off, and performed another aerial display. Bees did not appear to be injured in these fights, which were apparently ritualized. The two swarms abandoned the battle at about 8 or 9 A.M. each morning, only to re-form and begin again the next day just after dawn. While this contest over an unoccupied nest site produced no obvious mortality, fights over occupied nests sometimes kill over 1,000 bees in a single battle.

  如果那些來自其他殖民軍的工蜂同事到達了那些有發展遠景的巢穴，他們可能會為了所有權而戰斗。這些戰斗可能會升級為長時間的戰爭。這些研究者們研究巢穴所在的樹上的戰爭長達兩周。每次黎明，來自兩個不同殖民軍當中的十五到三十只工蜂到達那些會發生戰爭的巢穴。那些來自兩個殖民軍的職蟻分成兩個蜂群，戰列，然后彼此之間爭斗。在戰列時，一堆蜜蜂面對面，豎直慢慢的飛刀大概三米的高度，然后把對方打擊到地上。當兩個蜜蜂都掉落在地上，他們分開，面對面，然后再一次空中的戰列。蜜蜂不會再這些打斗當中受傷，這些打斗很明顯就是程序化的。兩個蜂群在每天早上大概 8,9 點離開戰爭，僅僅隔天的黎明又再次組隊。當這樣的戰斗通過一個沒有被占領的巢穴的時候不會留下明顯的戰斗痕跡的時候，那些在已經被占領的巢穴的戰爭有時僅僅一場戰爭就要死超過一千只蜜蜂。

  問題

  1. The word “rival” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A) established

  B) competing

  C) nearby

  D) different

  2. According to paragraph 2, some species of stingless bees are aggressive mainly toward

  A) nonaggressive bees that forage on the same flowers

  B) aggressive bees of other species

  C) bees from their own colony

  D) bees of their own species from different colonies

  3. According to paragraph 3, Hubbell and Johnson hypothesized that

  A) the distribution pattern of bee colonies determines the degree of aggressiveness the bees display

  B) nests of nonaggressive bees have either a random or a clumped distribution, while nests of aggressive bees have a regular distribution

  C) nests of nonaggressive bees are generally both closer together and more regularly distributed than those of aggressive bees

  D) nests of aggressive bees tend to be more regular in shape than those of nonaggressive bees

  4. According to paragraph 4, why did Hubbell and Johnson begin their study by mapping all the potential nest sites?

  A) To determine whether the availability of potential nest sites played a role in the distribution of bee colonies

  B) To know exactly where in the study area the colonies of all the different bee species were located

  C) To be sure that suitable nesting sites were equally available in all parts of the study area

  D) To find out whether different species of bees preferred different types of trees as potential nest sites

  5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A) The limited number of colonies was not due to the distribution or availability of potential nesting sites.

  B) There was no lack of suitable trees or potential nesting sites in the study area.

  C) The number of nests was directly related to the number or the distribution of suitable trees.

  D) Neither the number nor the distribution of colonies could be explained by the availability of suitable nest sites.

  6. According to paragraph 5, Hubbell and Johnson determined

  A) the order in which the colonies in the study area had been established

  B) the level of aggressiveness of each of the nine species

  C) the distribution pattern of the nests of five of the nine species

  D) the number of colonies of each of the nine species

  7. Why does the author indicate that “The fifth species was not aggressive, and its nests were randomly distributed over the study area”?

  A) To identify research results that contradicted Hubbell and Johnson’s original hypothesis

  B) To indicate that research results confirmed that nest distribution was related to aggressiveness

  C) To introduce the hypothesis that, within the same species, not all colonies are aggressive

  D) To point out that both aggressive and nonaggressive species are equally successful at finding nest sites

  8. The phrase “insights into” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A) tools to study

  B) opportunities for

  C) evidence of

  D) an understanding of

  9. According to paragraph 6, what is one result of using pheromones to mark nest sites?

  A) The use of pheromones tends to result in nest clumping.

  B) Pheromones attract animals other than bees to prospective nest sites.

  C) Pheromones tend to make bees aggressive.

  D) Pheromones secreted by bees of one colony also attract bees of other colonies.

  10. The word “escalated” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A) intensified

  B) transformed

  C) combined

  D) lengthened

  11. Paragraph 7 supports which of the following ideas about fights over occupied nests?

  A) They are more violent than battles over unoccupied nest sites.

  B) They mostly occur between colonies of different species.

  C) They are more frequent than battles over unoccupied sites.

  D) They last longer than battles over unoccupied sites do.

  12. Look at the four squares [￠] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.For example, a clumped distribution of nests might simply reflect a clumped distribution of suitable nesting sites. Where does the sentence best fit?

  13. Select from the seven sentences below the three sentences that correctly characterize aggressive species of stingless bees and the two sentences that correctly characterize nonaggressive species.Answer Choices:

  A) Nests are regularly distributed

  B) Nests are sometimes located close together

  C) Nests always occur in large clumps

  D) Colonies are generally made up of fewer than 100 workers

  E) Members of a colony feed alone or in small groups

  F) Bees feed mainly on flowers that grow in high-density clumps

  G) Nest spacing is maintained by fighting Aggressive Stingless Bees l

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