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  Children and Advertising

  Young children are trusting of commercial advertisements in the media, and advertisers have sometimes been accused of taking advantage of this trusting outlook. The Independent Television Commission, regulator of television advertising in the United Kingdom, has criticized advertisers for "misleadingness"—creating a wrong impression either intentionally or unintentionally—in an effort to control advertisers' use of techniques that make it difficult for children to judge the true size, action, performance, or construction of a toy.

  General concern about misleading tactics that advertisers employ is centered on the use of exaggeration. Consumer protection groups and parents believe that children are largely ill-equipped to recognize such techniques and that often exaggeration is used at the expense of product information. Claims such as "the best" or "better than" can be subjective and misleading; even adults may be unsure as to their meaning. They represent the advertiser's opinions about the qualities of their products or brand and, as a consequence, are difficult to verify. Advertisers sometimes offset or counterbalance an exaggerated claim with a disclaimer—a qualification or condition on the claim. For example, the claim that breakfast cereal has a health benefit may be accompanied by the disclaimer "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast." However, research has shown that children often have difficulty understanding disclaimers: children may interpret the phrase "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast" to mean that the cereal is required as a necessary part of a balanced breakfast. The author George Comstock suggested that less than a quarter of children between the ages of six and eight years old understood standard disclaimers used in many toy advertisements and that disclaimers are more readily comprehended when presented in both audio and visual formats. Nevertheless, disclaimers are mainly presented in audio format only.

  Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.

  The use of celebrities such as singers and movie stars is common in advertising. The intention is for the positively perceived attributes of the celebrity to be transferred to the advertised product and for the two to become automatically linked in the audience's mind. In children's advertising, the "celebrities" are often animated figures from popular cartoons. In the recent past, the role of celebrities in advertising to children has often been conflated with the concept of host selling. Host selling involves blending advertisements with regular programming in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish one from the other. Host selling occurs, for example, when a children's show about a cartoon lion contains an ad in which the same lion promotes a breakfast cereal. The psychologist Dale Kunkel showed that the practice of host selling reduced children's ability to distinguish between advertising and program material. It was also found that older children responded more positively to products in host selling advertisements.

  Regarding the appearance of celebrities in advertisements that do not involve host selling, the evidence is mixed. Researcher Charles Atkin found that children believe that the characters used to advertise breakfast cereals are knowledgeable about cereals, and children accept such characters as credible sources of nutritional information. This finding was even more marked for heavy viewers of television. In addition, children feel validated in their choice of a product when a celebrity endorses that product. A study of children in Hong Kong, however, found that the presence of celebrities in advertisements could negatively affect the children's perceptions of a product if the children did not like the celebrity in question.

  Paragraph 1: Young children are trusting of commercial advertisements in the media, and advertisers have sometimes been accused of taking advantage of this trusting outlook. The Independent Television Commission, regulator of television advertising in the United Kingdom, has criticized advertisers for "misleadingness"—creating a wrong impression either intentionally or unintentionally—in an effort to control advertisers' use of techniques that make it difficult for children to judge the true size, action, performance, or construction of a toy.

  1.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as being a difficult judgment for children to make about advertised toys?

  ○How big the toys are

  ○How much the toys cost

  ○What the toys can do

  ○How the toys are made

  Paragraph 2: General concern about misleading tactics that advertisers employ is centered on the use of exaggeration. Consumer protection groups and parents believe that children are largely ill-equipped to recognize such techniques and that often exaggeration is used at the expense of product information. Claims such as "the best" or "better than" can be subjective and misleading; even adults may be unsure as to their meaning. They represent the advertiser's opinions about the qualities of their products or brand and, as a consequence, are difficult to verify. Advertisers sometimes offset or counterbalance an exaggerated claim with a disclaimer—a qualification or condition on the claim. For example, the claim that breakfast cereal has a health benefit may be accompanied by the disclaimer "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast." However, research has shown that children often have difficulty understanding disclaimers: children may interpret the phrase "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast" to mean that the cereal is required as a necessary part of a balanced breakfast. The author George Comstock suggested that less than a quarter of children between the ages of six and eight years old understood standard disclaimers used in many toy advertisements and that disclaimers are more readily comprehended when presented in both audio and visual formats. Nevertheless, disclaimers are mainly presented in audio format only.

  2. The word “verify” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○establish the truth of

  ○approve of

  ○understand

  ○criticize

  3.In paragraph 2, what is one reason that claims such as “the best” or “better than” can be misleading?

  ○They represent the opinions of adults, which are often different from those of children.

  ○They generally involve comparisons among only a small group of products.

  ○They reflect the attitudes of consumer protection groups rather than those of actual consumers.

  ○They reflect the advertiser's viewpoint about the product.

  4.Cereal advertisements that include the statement “when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast” are trying to suggest that

  ○the cereal is a desirable part of a healthful, balanced breakfast

  ○the cereal contains equal amounts of all nutrients

  ○cereal is a healthier breakfast than other foods are

  ○the cereal is the most nutritious part of the breakfast meal

  5. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of disclaimers made in advertisements EXCEPT:

  ○They are qualifications or conditions put on a claim.

  ○They may be used to balance exaggerations.

  ○They are usually presented in both audio and visual formats.

  ○They are often difficult for children to understand.

  Paragraph 3: Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.

  6. The word “adept” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○responsible

  ○skillful

  ○patient

  ○curious

  7. Paragraph 3 indicates that there is uncertainty about which of the following issues involving children and fantasy in advertising?

  ○Whether children can tell if what they are seeing in an advertisement is real or fantasy

  ○Whether children can differentiate fantasy techniques from other techniques used in advertising

  ○Whether children realize how commonly fantasy techniques are used in advertising aimed at them

  ○Whether children are attracted to advertisements that lack fantasy

  8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Rational appeals in advertising are certainly limited by children's emotional immaturity and the indirect nature of their associations.

  ○Indirect appeals to children's psychological states or associations can limit the effectiveness of rational appeals in advertising.

  ○Rational appeals play a much smaller role in advertisements for children than emotional appeals and psychological associations do.

  ○Rational appeals in advertising aimed at children should certainly be limited until the children are emotionally and psychologically ready.

  Paragraph 4: The use of celebrities such as singers and movie stars is common in advertising. The intention is for the positively perceived attributes of the celebrity to be transferred to the advertised product and for the two to become automatically linked in the audience's mind. In children's advertising, the "celebrities" are often animated figures from popular cartoons. In the recent past, the role of celebrities in advertising to children has often been conflated with the concept of host selling. Host selling involves blending advertisements with regular programming in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish one from the other. Host selling occurs, for example, when a children's show about a cartoon lion contains an ad in which the same lion promotes a breakfast cereal. The psychologist Dale Kunkel showed that the practice of host selling reduced children's ability to distinguish between advertising and program material. It was also found that older children responded more positively to products in host selling advertisements.

  9. The word "attributes" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○evaluations

  ○attitudes

  ○actions

  ○characteristics

  10. In paragraph 4, why does the author mention a show about a cartoon lion in which an advertisement appears featuring the same lion character?

  ○To help explain what is meant by the term "host selling” and why it can be misleading to children

  ○To explain why the role of celebrities in advertising aimed at children has often been confused with host selling

  ○To compare the effectiveness of using animated figures with the effectiveness of using celebrities in advertisements aimed at children

  ○To indicate how Kunkel first became interested in studying the effects of host selling on children

  Paragraph 5: Regarding the appearance of celebrities in advertisements that do not involve host selling, the evidence is mixed. Researcher Charles Atkin found that children believe that the characters used to advertise breakfast cereals are knowledgeable about cereals, and children accept such characters as credible sources of nutritional information. This finding was even more marked for heavy viewers of television. In addition, children feel validated in their choice of a product when a celebrity endorses that product. A study of children in Hong Kong, however, found that the presence of celebrities in advertisements could negatively affect the children's perceptions of a product if the children did not like the celebrity in question.

  11. The word "credible” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○helpful

  ○believable

  ○valuable

  ○familiar

  12. According to paragraph 5, what did a study of children in Hong Kong show about the use of celebrities in advertisements aimed at children?

  ○ It is most effective with children who watch a lot of television.

  ○ It has little effect if the celebrities are not familiar to most children.

  ○ It is more effective in marketing cereals and food products than in marketing other kinds of products.

  ○ It can have a negative effect if the celebrities are not popular with children, in the passage is closest in meaning to.

  Paragraph 3: ■Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. ■Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. ■In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. ■Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Another aspect of advertising that may especially influence children is fantasy.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Advertisers sometimes use strategies that can mislead children.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer Choices

  ○Advertisements can be misleading to children when the advertisements use audio and visual formats that are especially appealing to children.

  ○Children may not be able to interpret exaggerated claims made by advertisers or understand the disclaimers used to offset claims.

  ○Although the use of celebrities is not necessarily effective in advertisements aimed at children, there is evidence that host selling can positively affect their views of a product.

  ○Studies show that misleading tactics are used most often in commercials for breakfast cereals, with toy commercials using such tactics only slightly less frequently.

  ○The use of fantasy is especially common in advertisements for children, but children may not be able to distinguish fantasy from reality.

  ○Very young children are particularly influenced by host selling, while slightly older children are more readily misled by seemingly rational claims such as “the best.”

  參考答案：

  1. ○2

  2. ○1

  3. ○4

  4. ○1

  5. ○3

  6. ○2

  7. ○1

  8.○3

  9. ○4

  10. ○1

  11. ○2

  12. ○4

  13. ○1

  14. Children may not…

  The use of…

  Although the use…

  Maya Water Problems

  To understand the ancient Mayan people who lived in the area that is today southern Mexico and Central America and the ecological difficulties they faced, one must first consider their environment, which we think of as "jungle" or "tropical rainforest." This view is inaccurate, and the reason proves to be important. Properly speaking, tropical rainforests grow in high-rainfall equatorial areas that remain wet or humid all year round. But the Maya homeland lies more than sixteen hundred kilometers from the equator, at latitudes 17 to 22 degrees north, in a habitat termed a "seasonal tropical forest." That is, while there does tend to be a rainy season from May to October, there is also a dry season from January through April. If one focuses on the wet months, one calls the Maya homeland a "seasonal tropical forest"; if one focuses on the dry months, one could instead describe it as a "seasonal desert."

  From north to south in the Yucatan Peninsula, where the Maya lived, rainfall ranges from 18 to 100 inches (457 to 2,540 millimeters) per year, and the soils become thicker, so that the southern peninsula was agriculturally more productive and supported denser populations. But rainfall in the Maya homeland is unpredictably variable between years; some recent years have had three or four times more rain than other years. As a result, modern farmers attempting to grow corn in the ancient Maya homelands have faced frequent crop failures, especially in the north. The ancient Maya were presumably more experienced and did better, but nevertheless they too must have faced risks of crop failures from droughts and hurricanes.

  Although southern Maya areas received more rainfall than northern areas, problems of water were paradoxically more severe in the wet south. While that made things hard for ancient Maya living in the south, it has also made things hard for modern archaeologists who have difficulty understanding why ancient droughts caused bigger problems in the wet south than in the dry north. The likely explanation is that an area of underground freshwater underlies the Yucatan Peninsula, but surface elevation increases from north to south, so that as one moves south the land surface lies increasingly higher above the water table. In the northern peninsula the elevation is sufficiently low that the ancient Maya were able to reach the water table at deep sinkholes called cenotes, or at deep caves. In low-elevation north coastal areas without sinkholes, the Maya would have been able to get down to the water table by digging wells up to 75 feet (22 meters) deep. But much of the south lies too high above the water table for cenotes or wells to reach down to it. Making matters worse, most of the Yucatan Peninsula consists of karst, a porous sponge-like limestone terrain where rain runs straight into the ground and where little or no surface water remains available.

  How did those dense southern Maya populations deal with the resulting water problem? It initially surprises us that many of their cities were not built next to the rivers but instead on high terrain in rolling uplands. The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season. For example, reservoirs at the Maya city of Tikal held enough water to meet the drinking water needs of about 10,000 people for a period of 18 months. At the city of Coba the Maya built dikes around a lake in order to raise its level and make their water supply more reliable. But the inhabitants of Tikal and other cities dependent on reservoirs for drinking water would still have been in deep trouble if 18 months passed without rain in a prolonged drought. A shorter drought in which they exhausted their stored food supplies might already have gotten them in deep trouble, because growing crops required rain rather than reservoirs.

  Paragraph 1: To understand the ancient Mayan people who lived in the area that is today southern Mexico and Central America and the ecological difficulties they faced, one must first consider their environment, which we think of as "jungle" or "tropical rainforest." This view is inaccurate, and the reason proves to be important. Properly speaking, tropical rainforests grow in high-rainfall equatorial areas that remain wet or humid all year round. But the Maya homeland lies more than sixteen hundred kilometers from the equator, at latitudes 17 to 22 degrees north, in a habitat termed a "seasonal tropical forest." That is, while there does tend to be a rainy season from May to October, there is also a dry season from January through April. If one focuses on the wet months, one calls the Maya homeland a "seasonal tropical forest"; if one focuses on the dry months, one could instead describe it as a "seasonal desert."

  1. Why does the author call the Mayan homeland both a “seasonal tropical forest” and "seasonal desert”?

  ○To illustrate how the climate of the Mayan homeland varied from region to region

  ○To explain how the climate of the Mayan homeland is similar to that of a jungle or tropical rainforest

  ○To emphasize the vast size of the area that comprised the Mayan homeland in ancient times

  ○To make the point that the Mayan homeland is climatically more complex than is generally assumed

  Paragraph 2: From north to south in the Yucatan Peninsula, where the Maya lived, rainfall ranges from 18 to 100 inches (457 to 2,540 millimeters) per year, and the soils become thicker, so that the southern peninsula was agriculturally more productive and supported denser populations. But rainfall in the Maya homeland is unpredictably variable between years; some recent years have had three or four times more rain than other years. As a result, modern farmers attempting to grow corn in the ancient Maya homelands have faced frequent crop failures, especially in the north. The ancient Maya were presumably more experienced and did better, but nevertheless they too must have faced risks of crop failures from droughts and hurricanes.

  2. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a difference between the northern and southern Yucatan Peninsula?

  ○The annual rainfall was greater in the south.

  ○The population density was lower in the north.

  ○Agricultural productivity was greater in the south

  ○Rainfall was more unpredictable and variable in the south.

  3. Which of the following statements about ancient and modem agriculture in the Yucatan Peninsula is supported by paragraph 2?

  ○Modern agricultural methods have solved many of the ancient problems of farming in the Yucatan Peninsula.

  ○Ancient Mayan farmers may have been somewhat more successful at farming in the Yucatan Peninsula than farmers are today.

  ○Farming today is easier than in the past because environmental changes in the Yucatan Peninsula have increased available rainfall

  ○The Yucatan soils in which ancient farmers worked were richer, more productive, and thicker than they are today.

  Paragraph 3: Although southern Maya areas received more rainfall than northern areas, problems of water were paradoxically more severe in the wet south. While that made things hard for ancient Maya living in the south, it has also made things hard for modern archaeologists who have difficulty understanding why ancient droughts caused bigger problems in the wet south than in the dry north. The likely explanation is that an area of underground freshwater underlies the Yucatan Peninsula, but surface elevation increases from north to south, so that as one moves south the land surface lies increasingly higher above the water table. In the northern peninsula the elevation is sufficiently low that the ancient Maya were able to reach the water table at deep sinkholes called cenotes, or at deep caves. In low-elevation north coastal areas without sinkholes, the Maya would have been able to get down to the water table by digging wells up to 75 feet (22 meters) deep. But much of the south lies too high above the water table for cenotes or wells to reach down to it. Making matters worse, most of the Yucatan Peninsula consists of karst, a porous sponge-like limestone terrain where rain runs straight into the ground and where little or no surface water remains available.

  4. The word “paradoxically” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○usually

  ○surprisingly

  ○understandably

  ○predictably

  5. The phrase “The likely explanation” in the passage refers to the explanation for why

  ○the southern Maya areas received more rainfall than the northern areas

  ○modern archaeologists have difficulty understanding ancient droughts

  ○water problems were most severe in the wet south

  ○land surface in the south is so high above the water table

  6. Which of the following statements about the availability of water in the Mayan homeland is supported by paragraph 3?

  ○The construction of wells was an uncommon practice in both the north and the south because it was too difficult to dig through the karst.

  ○In most areas in the north and the south, rainwater was absorbed directly into the porous karst.

  ○The water table was an important resource for agriculture in both the north and the south of the Yucatan Peninsula.

  ○The lack of surface water in both the north and the south was probably due to the fact that most of it was quickly used up for agricultural purposes.

  7. According to paragraph 3, why was the southern Mayan homeland hard to farm?

  ○The presence of numerous sinkholes and wells interfered with farming.

  ○Southern soil lacked the depth crops needed for growth.

  ○Underground water was too far below the surface to reach.

  ○The presence of karst caused frequent flooding.

  Paragraph 4: How did those dense southern Maya populations deal with the resulting water problem? It initially surprises us that many of their cities were not built next to the rivers but instead on high terrain in rolling uplands. The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season. For example, reservoirs at the Maya city of Tikal held enough water to meet the drinking water needs of about 10,000 people for a period of 18 months. At the city of Coba the Maya built dikes around a lake in order to raise its level and make their water supply more reliable. But the inhabitants of Tikal and other cities dependent on reservoirs for drinking water would still have been in deep trouble if 18 months passed without rain in a prolonged drought. A shorter drought in which they exhausted their stored food supplies might already have gotten them in deep trouble, because growing crops required rain rather than reservoirs.

  8 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Southern Maya populations obtained the water they needed for the dry season by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions.

  ○The Maya are credited with creating methods for modifying natural rainwater and storing it.

  ○Leaks in the karst caused difficulties in the creation of reservoirs, which were needed to store water for the dry season.

  ○Southern Mayans were more successful at collecting rain than storing it during dry seasons.

  9.What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about how residents of Tikal met their needs for water and food during most periods of drought?

  ○They depended upon water and food that had been stored for use during the dry season.

  ○They obtained drinking water and water for crop irrigation from Coba dikes.

  ○They located their population centers near a lake where water was available for drinking and watering crops.

  ○They moved locations every 18 months to find new croplands and water sources.

  10. The word "prolonged" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○unusual

  ○unexpected

  ○extended

  ○disastrous

  11. The word "exhausted" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○used up

  ○reduced

  ○wasted

  ○relied upon

  Paragraph 1: To understand the ancient Mayan people who lived in the area that is today southern Mexico and Central America and the ecological difficulties they faced, one must first consider their environment, which we think of as "jungle" or "tropical rainforest." ■This view is inaccurate, and the reason proves to be important. ■Properly speaking, tropical rainforests grow in high-rainfall equatorial areas that remain wet or humid all year round. But the Maya homeland lies more than sixteen hundred kilometers from the equator, at latitudes 17 to 22 degrees north, in a habitat termed a "seasonal tropical forest." ■That is, while there does tend to be a rainy season from May to October, there is also a dry season from January through April. If one focuses on the wet months, one calls the Maya homeland a "seasonal tropical forest"; if one focuses on the dry months, one could instead describe it as a "seasonal desert." ■

  12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  The difference between the two climates challenged the Maya who had to deal with both.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  13.Directions: Select from the seven phrases below the phrases that correctly characterize the southern Mayan homeland and the phrases that correctly characterize the northern Mayan homeland. Drag each phrase you select into the appropriate column of the table. Two of the phrases will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.

  Southern Mayan homeland

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Northern Mayan homeland

  ●

  ●

  Answer Choices

  ○ City of Tikal

  ○ Predictable rainfall

  ○ High above water table

  ○ Used reservoirs

  ○ Obtained water from wells

  ○ Dramatically improved corn crops

  ○ Had comparatively thin layer of soil

  參考答案：

  1. ○4

  2. ○4

  3. ○2

  4. ○2

  5. ○3

  6. ○2

  7. ○3

  8.○1

  9. ○1

  10. ○3

  11. ○1

  12. ○4

  13. Southern Mayan homeland: City of Tikal; High above water table; Used reservoirs

  Northern Mayan homeland: Obtained water from wells; Had comparatively thin layer of soil

  Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia

  Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock. Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the region's history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle, and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world.

  The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move."

  Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.

  Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.

  Paragraph 1: Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock. Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the region's history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle, and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world.

  1. The word “prestige” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○interest

  ○status

  ○demand

  ○profit

  2. According to paragraph 1, what made it possible for Inner Eurasian pastoralism to become the most mobile and militaristic form of pastoralism?

  ○It involved the domestication of several types of animals.

  ○It was based primarily on horses rather than on other animals.

  ○It borrowed and improved upon European ideas for mobility and warfare.

  ○It could be adapted to a wide variety of environments.

  3. The word “profound” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○strange

  ○positive

  ○direct

  ○far-reaching

  Paragraph 2: The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move."

  4. In paragraph 2, why does the author contrast pastoralists with agriculturalists?

  ○To explain why pastoralism requires more land than agriculturalism to support basic needs

  ○To identify some advantages that mobile societies have over immobile societies

  ○To demonstrate that ecological principles that apply to pastoralism do not apply to agriculturalism

  ○To argue that agriculturalism eventually developed out of pastoralism

  5. According to paragraph 2, pastoralists tend to

  ○prefer grazing their animals on agricultural lands

  ○consume comparatively large amounts of food and clothing

  ○avoid eating plant foods

  ○move from place to place frequently

  Paragraph 3: Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.

  6. In paragraph 3, why does the author discuss languages spoken in the region spanning from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia?

  ○To emphasize the frequency with which Indo-European languages changed as a result of the mobile nature of pastoralism

  ○To indicate one method linguists use to determine that inhabitants of the Don and Dnieper river area had taken up stock breeding

  ○To provide evidence that Indo-European languages have their roots in what is now Turkey

  ○To provide evidence that pastoralist societies can exercise cultural influence over a large area

  7. The word "striking” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○reliable

  ○noticeable

  ○convincing

  ○violent

  8. The word "exploit” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○use to advantage

  ○depart from

  ○pay attention to

  ○travel across

  Paragraph 4: Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.

  9. According to paragraph 4, the fact that pastoralist communities are subject to “strict rules of portability” encourages such communities to

  ○relocate less frequently than they would otherwise

  ○have households that are more or less equal in wealth

  ○become self-sufficient in the manufacture of silk and jewelry

  ○share large material surpluses with neighboring communities

  10. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of social inequality in pastoralist societies EXCEPT:

  ○It exists and has existed to some degree in most pastoral societies.

  ○It is most marked during periods of military conquest.

  ○It is expressed in the form of a rigid hierarchy based largely on heredity.

  ○It is usually too insignificant to be discussed in terms of class differences.

  11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status.

  ○Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military.

  ○Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women.

  ○In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do.

  Paragraph 4: Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. ■If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. ■Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). ■So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. ■Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.

  12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage

  There is a good reason for this.

  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

  13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  By 3000 B.C., a distinctive form of pastoralism had appeared on the steppes of Inner Eurasia.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer Choices

  ○The domesticated horse is primarily responsible for Inner Eurasian pastoralism's success in mobility and warfare.

  ○As pastoralists traveled across large areas of terrain with their domesticated animals, they traded valuable material goods such as silks and jewelry.

  ○Because pastoralists are highly mobile, they tend to have few material possessions and can influence the culture, ecology, and language of very large areas.

  ○Because pastoralism requires a great deal of land to support its animal-based lifeway, pastoralists must continually relocate and have comparatively egalitarian societies.

  ○Most scholars now believe that Indo-European languages probably evolved during the Neolithic period in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers.

  ○Pastoralist communities do not have social classes in the usual sense because they value spiritual attainment over material wealth.

  參考答案：

  1. ○2

  2. ○2

  3. ○4

  4. ○1

  5. ○4

  6. ○4

  7. ○2

  8.○1

  9. ○2

  10. ○3

  11. ○4

  12. ○1

  13. The domesticated horse…

  Because pastoralists are…

  Because pastoralism requires…

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