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  Architecture

  Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways.

  建筑是一門出于實用和象征的雙重目的，通過組織和利用空間來實現(xiàn)設(shè)計結(jié)構(gòu)的藝術(shù)和科學(xué)。。因為建筑源于人類的需求和愿望，同樣也可以清楚地傳達文化價值。在所有的視覺藝術(shù)中，建筑最直接地影響了我們的生活，因為它在很多方面決定了我們生存的環(huán)境特征。

  Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of elements. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also offer inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The client who pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to both clients and architects.

  建筑是一種利用空間、質(zhì)量、紋理、線條、光線和顏色的三維立體形式。一幢建筑物必須實現(xiàn)各種要素的和諧搭配。人類本能地希望可以提供居住并且改善他們生活質(zhì)量的建筑。建筑師們創(chuàng)造出來的建筑物不單純的是建筑物，還為人們帶來了靈感和喜悅。建筑物為人類的生活提供了遮蔽處和豐富的空間、增加人們的活動場所、完善人們的居所、幫助人們適應(yīng)氣候的變化，同時在經(jīng)濟上也可承受。建筑團隊中，最重要的是那些為建筑支付建設(shè)費用并且設(shè)計其功能的人，許多當代建筑平庸的根源在于客戶和建筑師雙反。

  In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have changed dramatically. The world’s architectural structures have also been devised in relation to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination of these in different parts of the structure.

  為了達到建筑的目的，一定的大小和強度是必須的。盡管建筑材料已經(jīng)發(fā)生了翻天覆地的變化，建筑采用的各種支撐方法自從人們發(fā)現(xiàn)它們以來鮮有改變，因為這些方法都建立在物理定律的基礎(chǔ)上。世界的建筑結(jié)構(gòu)也因為克服材料限制的目的而發(fā)展起來。建筑師們在設(shè)計建筑結(jié)構(gòu)的時候需要將重力對材料的影響考慮在內(nèi)，通過結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計使建筑不同部分能抵抗壓力、拉力、彎曲力或混合的壓力。

  Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago.

  甚至建筑的發(fā)展也是由重大的技術(shù)變革造成的。材料和建設(shè)方法是建筑結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計整體的組成部分。早期，人們必須設(shè)計結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)來配合當前可用的材料，如木頭、石頭和磚。現(xiàn)今的技術(shù)已經(jīng)發(fā)展到能夠創(chuàng)造新的建筑材料來適應(yīng)想要應(yīng)用的建筑結(jié)構(gòu)。近幾代建筑材料和科技的巨大變化使得包圍空間更加簡單、快速，并且用更少的材料。在這一領(lǐng)域的進步可以用現(xiàn)在修建的建筑和100年前建造的同規(guī)模建筑之間的重量差異來衡量。

  Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body: a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one.

  類似人類的身體結(jié)構(gòu)，現(xiàn)代建筑可以劃分為三個獨立的部分：支撐骨架或框架、圍住內(nèi)部空間的外殼以及像人體內(nèi)器官一樣重要的設(shè)施。這些設(shè)施包括管道、電線、熱水和空調(diào)。當然，在早期的圓頂建筑和土坯建筑中并沒有這樣的設(shè)施，皮膚和骨骼也往往是合在一起的。

  Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries.

  世界上大多數(shù)偉大的建筑都是石料建筑，因為石料建筑不僅外形漂亮、持久耐用，而且石頭隨處可得。在過去，整個城市的建筑物都是從艱苦的石塊切割和堆砌發(fā)展起來的。在秘魯安第斯山脈東部的馬丘比丘印加古城遺址，可以看到世界上最棒的石質(zhì)建筑。在開闊的空間上放置厚石板來支撐上面的石頭，使門和窗的修建成為可能。設(shè)計師們必須在克服石頭的物理限制以及新建筑形式發(fā)展之前發(fā)明出建筑結(jié)構(gòu)，這就是拱形結(jié)構(gòu)，即最初由分段的石頭或磚塊構(gòu)成的弧形結(jié)構(gòu)。拱最初在地中海早期文化中用來建設(shè)地下水渠，但古羅馬人最先開發(fā)和廣泛的利用它作為地上建筑的結(jié)構(gòu)，他們完善了由分段的石塊組成的半圓形拱。作為跨越空間的一種方式，拱可以比水平橫梁支撐更大的重量。它使得其上的壓力轉(zhuǎn)移到兩側(cè)，由兩側(cè)垂直的部分來承擔壓力。拱形結(jié)構(gòu)只是近百年來眾多重要建筑結(jié)構(gòu)的突破之一。

  Paragraph 1: Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways.

  1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following statements about architecture are true EXCEPT:

  ○Architecture is visual art.

  ○Architecture reflects the cultural values of its creators.

  ○Architecture has both artistic and scientific dimensions.

  ○Architecture has an indirect effect on life.

  Paragraph 2: Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of elements. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also offer inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The client who pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to both clients and architects.

  2.The word “feasible” in the passage is closet in meaning to

  ○in existence

  ○without question

  ○achievable

  ○most likely

  3. The word “enhance” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○protect

  ○improve

  ○organize

  ○match

  Paragraph 3: In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have changed dramatically. The world’s architectural structures have also been devised in relation to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination of these in different parts of the structure.

  4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Unchanging physical laws have limited the size and strength of buildings that can be made with materials discovered long ago.

  ○B(yǎng)uilding materials have changed in order to increase architectural size and strength, but physical laws of structure have not changed.

  ○When people first started to build, the structural methods used to provide strength and size were inadequate because they were not based on physical laws.

  ○Unlike building materials, the methods of support used in architecture have not changed over time because they are based on physical laws.

  5. The word “devised” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○combined

  ○created

  ○introduced

  ○suggested

  Paragraph 4: Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago.

  6. The word “integral” is closet in meaning to

  ○essential

  ○variable

  ○practical

  ○independent

  7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about materials used in the construction of buildings?

  ○B(yǎng)ecause new building materials are hard to find, construction techniques have changed very little from past generations.

  ○The availability of suitable building materials no longer limits the types of structures that may be built.

  ○The primary building materials that are available today are wood, stone, and brick.

  ○Architects in earlier times did not have enough building materials to enclose large spaces.

  8. In paragraph 4, what does the author imply about modern buildings?

  ○They occupy much less space than buildings constructed one hundred years ago.

  ○They are not very different from the building of a few generations ago.

  ○They weigh less in relation to their size than buildings constructed one hundred years ago.

  ○They take a long time to build as a result of their complex construction methods.

  Paragraph 5: Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body: a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one.

  9. Which of the following correctly characterizes the relationship between the human body and architecture that is described in paragraph 5?

  ○Complex equipment inside buildings is the one element in modern architecture that resembles a component of the human body.

  ○The components in early buildings were similar to three particular elements of the human body.

  ○Modern buildings have components that are as likely to change as the human body is.

  ○In general, modern buildings more closely resemble the human body than earlier buildings do.

  Paragraph 6: Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries.

  10. The word “arduous” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○difficult

  ○necessary

  ○skilled

  ○shared

  11. Why does the author include a description of how the “doorways and windows” of Machu Picchu were constructed?

  ○To indicate that the combined skeletons and skins of the stone buildings of Machu Picchu were similar to igloos and adobe structures

  ○To indicate the different kinds of stones that had to be cut to build Machu Picchu

  ○To provide an illustration of the kind of construction that was required before arches were invented

  ○To explain how ancient builders reduced the amount of time necessary to construct buildings from stone

  12.According to paragraph 6, which of the following statements is true of the arch?

  ○The Romans were the first people to use the stone arch.

  ○The invention of the arch allowed new architectural forms to be developed.

  ○The arch worked by distributing the structural load of a building toward the center of the arch.

  ○The Romans followed earlier practices in their use of arches.

  Paragraph 5: Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one.

  13.Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  However, some modern architectural designs, such as those using folded plates of concreter or air-inflated structures, are again unifying skeleton and skin.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Architecture uses forms and space to express cultural values.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○Architects seek to create buildings that are both visually appealing and well suited for human use.

  ○Over the course of the history of building, innovations in material and methods of construction have given architects ever greater freedom to express themselves.

  ○Throughout history buildings have been constructed like human bodies, needing distinct “organ” systems in order to function.

  ○B(yǎng)oth clients and architects are responsible for the mediocre designs of some modern buildings.

  ○Modern buildings tend to lack the beauty of ancient stone buildings such as those of Machu Picchu.

  ○The discovery and use of the arch typifies the way in which architecture advances by developing more efficient types of structures.

  參考答案：

  1. ○ 4

  2. ○ 3

  3. ○2

  4. ○ 4

  5. ○ 2

  6. ○ 1

  7. ○ 2

  8. ○ 3

  9. ○ 4

  10. ○ 1

  11. ○ 3

  12. ○ 2

  13. ○ 4

  14. Architects seek to create…

  Over the course of the…

  The discovery and use of…

  Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer

  The vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region.

  19世紀80年代，在美國中部北美大平原的廣闊草原上定居著農(nóng)場主們和牧場主們。這里有著半干旱的氣候，在人們定居50年后，它支撐了一個以畜牧業(yè)和小麥種植為主的低密度農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)濟。然而，在20世紀初，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)北美大平原的大部地下是巨大的蓄水層(含有大量地下水的巖層)。這個蓄水層因曾經(jīng)在這里定居過的奧加拉拉蘇族印第安人而得名，被稱作奧加拉拉蓄水層。

  The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year.

  奧加拉拉蓄水層屬于砂巖結(jié)構(gòu)，在從德克薩斯州西北到南達科塔州南部的地下綿延了58.3萬平方公里。雨水和融雪自3萬年前便開始在奧加拉拉蓄積。據(jù)估計，奧加拉拉蓄水層的含水量足以填滿休倫湖，但不幸的是，在目前該地區(qū)半干旱的氣候條件下，奧加拉拉蓄水層的蓄水能力極低，每年僅半厘米左右。

  The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here.

  20世紀30年代初，奧加拉拉正處于干旱時期，人們打出了第一口井。灌溉農(nóng)業(yè)的迅速擴張，特別是20世紀50年代之后，改變了這一地區(qū)的經(jīng)濟。目前人們已經(jīng)在奧加拉拉地區(qū)共開鑿了10萬多口井。日噴水量達到450萬升的現(xiàn)代灌溉設(shè)備，形成了一個圓形綠島作物為主的景觀。奧加拉拉蓄水層支撐了北美大平原地區(qū)棉花、高粱、小麥、玉米的灌溉需求。此外，美國40%谷飼養(yǎng)的肉牛在這里被育肥。

  This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate—that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply—has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980.

  考慮到幾乎沒有補充率(實質(zhì)上沒有自然水資源進行補充)，這種有限地下水資源前所未有的發(fā)展已經(jīng)引起了該地區(qū)地下水位的急劇下降。在20世紀30年代，井下15米就有豐富的水資源，而現(xiàn)在，必須挖掘到45米到60米甚至更深的地方才行。有的地方地下水位的下降速度甚至達到了每年1米，迫使人們周期性的加深水井并使用更有力的水泵。按現(xiàn)今的下降速度來估計，大部分地下蓄水將在40年內(nèi)耗盡。這種現(xiàn)象在氣候最干旱的德克薩斯州尤為嚴重。大量的水被從地下抽起，蓄水層含水量最少。據(jù)估計，到2030年，德克薩斯州余下的奧加拉拉含水只能支持1980年灌溉面積的35%到40%。

  The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies.

  農(nóng)場主們對無法避免的奧加拉拉蓄水層枯竭的反應(yīng)各不相同。很多人已經(jīng)開始嘗試通過降低灌溉頻率或者改種需水較少的莊稼來節(jié)約水資源。而另外一些人卻抱著趁水資源還能產(chǎn)生經(jīng)濟效益就應(yīng)抓緊利用的想法，繼續(xù)種植高價值的棉花等農(nóng)作物。當那些想節(jié)水的農(nóng)場主得知鄰居們通過大量耗水的種植而盈利的時候，他們的熱情降低了，從而導(dǎo)致了整個區(qū)域的供水量的減少。

  In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.

  在即將到來的水資源供應(yīng)危機面前，人們提出了一些宏偉的供水計劃，比如將密西西比河、密蘇里河或者阿肯色河的水通過運河或管道運到需要用水的地方。不幸的是，通過以上任何一種方式獲得水資源都會將抽水的成本提高10倍以上，進而導(dǎo)致這一地區(qū)的灌溉農(nóng)產(chǎn)品成本在國內(nèi)和國際市場上失去競爭力。最近一些有希望獲得成功的試驗試圖通過向土壤中注入壓力，釋放水層上方土壤中的毛細管水。即使這樣行之有效，抽水成本會變到原來的3倍。基因工程也會通過繼續(xù)研發(fā)抗旱作物新品種，幫助解決部分難題。無論這次水資源危機的最終結(jié)果如何，顯然，北美大平原地區(qū)灌溉水資源再也不會像20世紀中期農(nóng)業(yè)繁榮時期的那樣充足并且廉價了。

  Paragraph 1: The vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region.

  1.According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements about the High Plains is true?

  ○Until farmers and ranchers settled there in the 1880s, the High Plains had never been inhabited.

  ○The climate of the High Plains is characterized by higher-than-average temperatures.

  ○The large aquifer that lies underneath the High Plains was discovered by the Ogallala Sioux Indians.

  ○B(yǎng)efore the early 1900s there was only a small amount of farming and ranching in the High Plains.

  Paragraph 2: The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year.

  2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following statements about the Ogallala aquifer are true EXCEPT:

  ○The aquifer stretches from South Dakota to Texas.

  ○The aquifer’s water comes from underground springs.

  ○Water has been gathering in the aquifer for 30,000 years.

  ○The aquifer’s water is stored in a layer of sandstone.

  3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Despite the current impressive size of the Ogallala aquifer, the region’s climate keeps the rates of water addition very small.

  ○Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of fill Lake Huron.

  ○B(yǎng)ecause of the region’s present climatic conditions, water is being added each year to the aquifer.

  ○Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of addition of water continue to increase.

  Paragraph 3: The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here.

  4. The word “ensuing” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○continuing

  ○surprising

  ○initial

  ○subsequent

  5. In paragraph 3, why does the author provide the information that 40 percent of American cattle are fattened in the High Plains?

  ○To suggest that crop cultivation is not the most important part of the economy of the High Plains

  ○To indicate that not all economic activity in the High Plains is dependent on irrigation

  ○To provide another example of how water from the Ogallala has transformed the economy of the High Plains

  ○To contrast cattle-fattening practices in the High Plains with those used in other region of the United States

  Paragraph 4: This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate—that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply—has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980.

  6. The word “unprecedented” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○difficult to control

  ○without any restriction

  ○unlike anything in the past

  ○rapidly expanding

  7. The word “virtually” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○clearly

  ○perhaps

  ○frequently

  ○almost

  8. According to paragraph 4, all of following are consequences of the heavy use of the Ogallala aquifer for irrigation EXCEPT:

  ○The recharge rate of the aquifer is decreasing.

  ○Water tables in the region are becoming increasingly lower.

  ○Wells now have to be dug to much greater depths than before.

  ○Increasingly powerful pumps are needed to draw water from the aquifer.

  9. According to paragraph 4, compared with all other states that use Ogallala water for irrigation, Texas

  ○has the greatest amount of farmland being irrigated with Ogallala water

  ○contains the largest amount of Ogallala water underneath the soil

  ○is expected to face the worst water supply crisis as the Ogallala runs dry

  ○uses the least amount of Ogallala water for its irrigation needs

  Paragraph 5: The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies.

  10. The word “inevitable” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○unfortunate

  ○predictable

  ○unavoidable

  ○final

  11. Paragraph 5 mentions which of the following as a source of difficulty for some farmers who try to conserve water?

  ○Crops that do not need much water are difficult to grow in the High Plains.

  ○Farmers who grow crops that need a lot of water make higher profits.

  ○Irrigating less frequently often leads to crop failure.

  ○Few farmers are convinced that the aquifer will eventually run dry.

  Paragraph 6: In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping

  costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.

  12.According to paragraph 6, what is the main disadvantage of the proposed plans to transport river water to the High Plains?

  ○The rivers cannot supply sufficient water for the farmer’s needs.

  ○Increased irrigation costs would make the products too expensive.

  ○The costs of using capillary water for irrigation will increase.

  ○Farmers will be forced to switch to genetically engineered crops.

  Paragraph 5: The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies.

  Paragraph 6: In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.

  13.Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  But even if uncooperative farmers were to join in the conservation efforts, this would only delay the depletion of the aquifer.

  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  The Ogallala aquifer is a large underground source of water in the High Plains region of the United States.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○The use of the Ogallala for irrigation has allowed the High Plains to become one of the most productive agricultural regions in the United States.

  ○Given the aquifer’s low recharge rate, its use for irrigation is causing water tables to drop and will eventually lead to its depletion.

  ○Releasing capillary water and introducing drought-resistant crops are less-promising solutions to the water supply crisis than bringing in river water

  ○The periodic deepening of wells and the use of more-powerful pumps would help increase the natural recharge rate of the Ogallala.

  ○In Texas, a great deal of attention is being paid to genetic engineering because it is there that the most critical situation exists.

  ○Several solutions to the upcoming water supply crisis have been proposed, but none of them promises to keep the costs of irrigation low.

  參考答案：

  1. ○4

  2. ○2

  3. ○1

  4. ○4

  5. ○3

  6. ○3

  7. ○4

  8. ○1

  9. ○3

  10. ○3

  11. ○2

  12. ○2

  13. ○3

  14. The use of the Ogallala for…

  Given the aquifer’s low recharge…

  Several solutions to the upcoming…

  The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems

  Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.

  植物群體可以自由地聚集，它們特殊的結(jié)構(gòu)取決于聚集區(qū)域的具體歷史。生態(tài)學(xué)家使用“演替”來詮釋植物群落和生態(tài)系統(tǒng)隨著時間推移所發(fā)生的變化。演替中的第一個群落被稱作先鋒群落，而處于演替最后那個長期生存的群落被稱為頂極群落。先鋒群落和緊接著的植物群落的變化周期是從1到500年不等，植物數(shù)量和混合種類數(shù)量的變化是慢慢積累的。頂極群落本身也改變，但其變化周期超過500 年。

  An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

  現(xiàn)代一個研究池塘的生態(tài)學(xué)會發(fā)現(xiàn)池塘在一年當中相對而言是不變的。個別魚類可能被替換，但年復(fù)一年魚的總數(shù)都趨于一致。也就是說，一個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)自身的屬性要比由單一生物體組成的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)更穩(wěn)定。

  At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.

  生態(tài)學(xué)家們一度認為物種的多樣性使生態(tài)系統(tǒng)穩(wěn)定，生態(tài)系統(tǒng)物種越多樣則生態(tài)系統(tǒng)越穩(wěn)定。通過觀察得出的結(jié)論支持了這個觀點，長期持久的頂極群落通常要比先鋒群落具備更為復(fù)雜的食物網(wǎng)和更多的物種。生態(tài)學(xué)家家們得出的結(jié)論是：頂點生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定性明顯取決于他們的復(fù)雜化程度。舉個極端的例子，在單一作物的農(nóng)田中，一年的惡劣天氣或單一害蟲的入侵就可以摧毀所有作物。與此相反，在一個復(fù)雜的頂極群落里，如溫帶森林，他們便可以抵御來自氣候和害蟲的干擾和入侵。

  The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.

  不管怎樣，生態(tài)系統(tǒng)穩(wěn)定性的問題非常復(fù)雜。首先，不是所有的生態(tài)學(xué)家都贊同“穩(wěn)定”的含義。穩(wěn)定性可以簡單地定義為缺乏變化。如果是這樣的話，頂極群落將被視為最穩(wěn)定的，因為根據(jù)定義，他們隨著時間推移而變化得最少。另外，穩(wěn)定性也可以界定為生態(tài)系統(tǒng)在經(jīng)歷了嚴重破壞之后回復(fù)原貌的速度，比如火災(zāi)。這種穩(wěn)定性也被稱作彈性。在這種情況下，頂極群落將是最脆弱和最不穩(wěn)定的，因為他們可能需要數(shù)百年時間才能恢復(fù)到頂點狀態(tài)。

  Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.

  即使是這種被定義為簡單地缺乏變化的穩(wěn)定性并非總是與最多樣的物種聯(lián)系起來。至少在溫帶地區(qū)，會經(jīng)常在演替過程中發(fā)現(xiàn)最多物種，而不是在頂極群落中。例如，紅杉樹林一旦成熟，其中的物種數(shù)量以及單個物種的數(shù)量都會減少。一般來說，多樣性本身并不能保證穩(wěn)定性(事實上正相反)，生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的數(shù)學(xué)模型也可以得出同樣的結(jié)論。一個更復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)可能比一個簡單的系統(tǒng)更容易被破壞(一個十五速的賽車比一個孩子的三輪車更容易損壞)。

  Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

  生態(tài)學(xué)家們更想弄清楚到底哪些因素有助于促成群落的恢復(fù)，因為世界各地的頂極群落都因為人類活動而遭受到嚴重的損壞或毀壞。就像美國西北部圣海倫火山的猛烈噴發(fā)所造成的破壞，在人類活動對環(huán)境造成的破壞面前也相形見絀。我們必須了解對群落抵抗、破壞和恢復(fù)來說哪些是最重要的。

  Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

  現(xiàn)在的很多生態(tài)學(xué)家們認為，頂極群落相對長期的穩(wěn)定性并非來自于多樣性，而是來自環(huán)境的“補綴”，隨處變化的環(huán)境比始終如一的環(huán)境更有利于多種有機體的生存。當?shù)匚锓N滅亡后，馬上就會被相鄰群落的移民取代。即便是另一種不同的物種，他們也可以填補那些已滅絕生物的空缺，并保持食物網(wǎng)的完整。

  Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.

  1. The word “particular” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○natural

  ○final

  ○specific

  ○complex

  2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?

  ○They occur at the end of a succession.

  ○They last longer than any other type of community.

  ○The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change.

  ○They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.

  Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

  3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond?

  ○Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.

  ○The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.

  ○Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.

  ○A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s properties.

  Paragraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.

  4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems?

  ○Pioneer communities

  ○Climax communities

  ○Single-crop farmlands

  ○Successional plant communities

  Paragraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.

  5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?

  ○The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.

  ○Ecologists often confuse the word “stability” with the word “resilience.”

  ○The exact meaning of the word “stability” is debated by ecologists.

  ○There are many different answers to ecological questions.

  6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?

  ○They are more resilient than pioneer communities.

  ○They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.

  ○They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.

  ○They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.

  Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.

  7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?

  ○They become less stable as they mature.

  ○They support many species when they reach climax.

  ○They are found in temperate zones.

  ○They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.

  8. The word “guarantee” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○increase

  ○ensure

  ○favor

  ○complicate

  9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that “A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle”?

  ○To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example

  ○To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations

  ○To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity

  ○To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems

  Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

  10. The word “pales” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○increases proportionally

  ○differs

  ○loses significance

  ○is common

  Paragraph 7: Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

  11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.

  ○Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.

  ○Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.

  ○A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.

  12.The word “adjacent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○foreign

  ○stable

  ○fluid

  ○neighboring

  Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

  13.Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.

  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.

  ○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.

  ○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.

  ○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.

  ○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.

  ○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans.

  參考答案：

  1. ○3

  2. ○3

  3. ○1

  4. ○2

  5. ○3

  6. ○2

  7. ○3

  8. ○2

  9. ○1

  10. ○3

  11. ○4

  12. ○4

  13. ○2

  14. A high degree of species diversity…

  The level of resilience in…

  Disagreements over the…

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